Kadu language

Kadu or Kado (Kadu:); is a Sino-Tibetan language of the Sal branch spoken in Sagaing Region, Myanmar by the Kadu people. Dialects are Settaw, Mawkhwin, and Mawteik [extinct], with 30,000 speakers total. Kadu is considered an endangered language, and is closely related to the Ganan and Sak languages.

Names
Alternate names for Kadu listed in Ethnologue are Gadu, Kado, Kadu-Ganaan, Kantu, Kato, Kudo, Maw, Mawteik, Puteik, and Thet; the autonym is Asak.

Geographical distribution
Statistics for Kadu-speaking villages are as follows:
 * Over 30 villages speaking the Mawteik dialect (nearly extinct)
 * Over 30 villages speaking the Settaw dialect
 * 5 villages speaking the Mawkhwin dialect

The speakers of the Kadu language live in Banmauk, Indaw, and Pinlebu, which are three townships in the Katha District, Sagaing Region, Myanmar. Among these three, Banmauk has the largest Kadu-speaking population and Pinlebu has the smallest Kadu-speaking population. Many Kadu speakers have shifted to Burmese or are bilingual in Burmese.

There is low mutual intelligibility among the Mawkhwin, Settaw, and Mawteik dialects of Kadu. Settaw and Mawteik share 95 to 98% mutual intelligibility, while Mawkhwin Kadu and other Kadu varieties share 91 to 93% lexical similarity. Kadu shares 84%–89% lexical similarity with Kanan.

History
The Kadu were the dominant ethnic group in the Chindwin River valley at the beginning of the early 2nd millennium A.D. until the Chin people and subsequently the Shan people migrated into the Chindwin Valley (Matisoff 2013:13).

Vowels
Kadu vowels consist of eight monophthongs and a diphthong /ai/.

Consonants
Kadu has 20 consonants. The final consonants need to be nasals or voiceless stops.

Tone
Kadu has three tones; high, mid, and low.

Syllabic structure
C1C2V1V2C3

C: Consonant

V: Vowel

C1: necessary, this can be any Kadu consonant except unvoiced nasals.

C2: optional, this can be only.

V1: necessary, this can be any Kadu vowel, however, appears only in the form of CɘC.

V2: optional.

C3: optional, this can be only.

Consonants
Kadu has 19 consonants

Grammar
Kadu is an SOV language.

Nouns
Abstract nouns such as freedom, love, experience, and anger are not attested in the Kadu noun class. They are usually expressed by verbs or adjectival verbs.

The language has two categories of nouns:

1, So called "simple nouns" are treated as monomorphemic by the native speakers.

2, Nouns known as "complex nouns" are polymorphemic, and most of the complex nouns come from the process of compounding.

Verbs
Adjectives that expresses dimensions and qualities such as "tong" (=big) and "lom" (=warm) function as verbs, and are categorized as verbs.

The verbs are structurally categorized as:

1, Simple verbs, which are treated as monomorphemic words by the native speakers.

and

2, Polymorphemic complex verbs.

Kadu verbs may be reduplicated using the same morpheme or may take attendant words to express the repeated or frequent actions.

V-V constructions function as resultative, directional, evaluative, explanatory, or manner.

Adverbs
The adverbs are also "simple" or "complex" like nouns and verbs.

One thing to point up is that the complex adverbs are derived from verbs or nominals by the processes of reduplication or semi-reduplication.

Numerals
Kadu has retained native numerals for only the numerals one, two, three, and four. Other numerals have been supplanted by Tai Laing and Burmese numerals.

Numerals are always attached to classifiers, although classifiers do not occur with multiples of ten.

As for ordinal numbers, Burmese ordinal numbers are used because the original ordinal numbers are already lost.

Quantifiers
Quantifiers follow the head noun they quantify.

Particles
There are nominal relational markers, verbal particles, clausal particles, utterance final particles, and speaker attitude particles.

Yes/no interrogatives
Yes/no questions are formed by simply adding either of the two interrogative particles "la" and "ka" at the end of the phrase.

Alternative questions
Yes/no questions can also be expressed by an alternative interrogative expression like "is it A or not A", which can be found in Mandarin Chinese as well.

Tag questions
Interrogative sentences can be made by adding "chi" (=true) at the end of sentences, like "right?" in English language.

Wh- questions
Wh- questions are formed by attaching the Wh-word forming morphemes, " ma" or " ha", to specific nomials or nominal postpositions.

Wh- question words also may function as indefinite pronouns such as "whatever", "anyone" and so on.

Negation
Verbs can be negated by negative proclitics, "a-" and "in-".