Kainji languages

The Kainji languages are a group of about 60 related languages spoken in west-central Nigeria. They form part of the Central Nigerian (Platoid) branch of Benue–Congo.

Demographics
Four of the most widely spoken Kainji languages are Tsuvadi (150,000), Cishingini and Tsishingini (100,000 each)—all from the Kambari branch; and Clela (C'lela, Lela) (100,000), of the Northwest Kainji branch. In total, there were about one million speakers of Kainji languages (1990s estimate) in Nigeria.

History
Proto-Kainji is estimated by Blench (2012) to be 3,000 to 4,000 years old. Its broken distribution today is likely due to the historical northward expansion of the Nupoid languages.

Morphology
Proto-Kainji nominal prefixes:


 * *mV- for liquids and other mass nouns
 * *u- for person, *ba- for people
 * *kV- for diminutive and perhaps also augmentative; also found in some Plateau languages

Classification
The most divergent of the Kainji languages are Reshe, Laru and Lopa, which may form a branch together. Subclassification of the other branches is not yet clear. A bipartite division between East Kainji and West Kainji is no longer maintained, with West Kainji now being paraphyletic.

Blench (2018)
Most recent Kainji classification by Blench (2018:64):


 * Kainji
 * Lake
 * Reshe
 * Upper Niger
 * Rop
 * Shen, Shuba
 * Central
 * Northwest Kainji
 * Kambari, Cicipu
 * East Kainji
 * Kamuku, Shiroro, Basa

Blench (2012)
Blench's (2012) classification is:


 * Kainji
 * Lakes: Reshe; Laru (Shen), Lopa (Rerang)
 * Kainji proper (Central)
 * Northwest Kainji (Lela)
 * Kambari, Cicipu
 * Basa, East Kainji
 * Kamuku, Shiroro
 * Kamuku, Shiroro

McGill (2012)
A revised classification of the Kainji languages by McGill (2012) splits Kainji into the Lake and Central branches.


 * Kainji
 * Lake
 * Reshe
 * Upper Niger
 * Sengwe/Laru
 * Oleran/Lopa: Rop, Cuba
 * Central
 * Basa, Eastern
 * Northwest
 * Damakawa
 * C'lela
 * Hun-Saare/Duka; Wuri-Gwamhi-Mba, Ma'in/Fakai
 * Kambari
 * Cicipu
 * West: Gaushi/Auna, Kimba, Wunci/Agwara
 * East: Shingini/Salka, Va'di, Bangi
 * Nuclear
 * Shiroro
 * Bauchi: Mun-Wayam, Rubo-Supana
 * Gurmana
 * Rin/Pongu, Waga
 * Fungwa/Ura
 * Kamuku-Hunwarya/Ngwoi
 * Hunwarya/Ngwoi
 * Kamuku
 * Regi-Cinda-Kuki
 * Rogo-Shiyabe, Zubazuba-East Acipa
 * Shama

Gerhardt (1983)
Classification of Plateau 1a (now West Kainji) and Plateau 1b (now East Kainji) languages by Gerhardt (1983), based on Maddieson (1972):


 * Plateau 1a
 * Laru-Lopa
 * Reshe
 * Kambari cluster
 * Ngwoi, Kamuku cluster, Bassa-Kontagora, Ashaganna
 * Bassa-Kaduna, Bassa-Kuta, Gurmana, Pongo, Baushi, Ura, Bassa-Kwomu
 * Dakarkari, Duka, Pəku-Kəri-Wipsi cluster, Lyase


 * Plateau 1b
 * Kuda-Chamo, Butu-Ningi, Gyema, Taura, Lemoro-Sanga, Janji, Shani, Buji-Ibunu-Jere-Gus, Anaguta
 * Kuzamaini, Kurama, Rumaya, Ruruma, Binawa, Kono, Surubu
 * Kaivi, Kiballo, Kitimi, Kinuku, Dungi, Gure-Kahugu
 * Amo

Names and locations
Below is a comprehensive list of Kainji language names, populations, and locations from Blench (2019).

Note: West Kainji is geographical rather than genealogical.

Numerals
Comparison of numerals in individual languages: