Liberalism in India

In the beginning of 19th century, Lord William Bentinck, then-Governor-general speculated that the possibility of vast change occurring in the frame of society would eventually lead to the British leaving the country under capable Indian rule. But he also added that such changes should not be expected for centuries to come, thus giving justification to the despotic rule by British in the meantime. Mid-century liberals like John Stuart Mill provided the ideological basis for such tendencies.

At the end of 19th century, Gladstonian liberals inducted Indians from the elite class into new representative institutions, thereby providing a framework for later self-rule, which became a reality by 1947.

Right-wing journalist Swapan Dasgupta wrote in 1994 that the spirit of liberalism in India is superficial and is tempered by (what he views as) authoritarian ideologies like Marxism.

History
Rise of liberalism

Prominent ideas of classical liberalism emerged in Great Britain at the wane of the eighteenth century. These began as primarily leftist schools of thought, including (but not limited to) concepts such as individualism, liberty, and egalitarianism. Simultaneously, British India (Company Raj) underwent a similar chrysalis. The effects of classical liberalism in India introduced many Western practices, philosophical doctrines, and political ideologies to the nation, primarily because Indians were deemed unfit for self-rule, as outlined below.

Governor Generals of the British East India Company Warren Hastings and Charles Cornwallis instituted numerous changes over their rules. Notably, Cornwallis instituted the Cornwallis Code in 1793, a code of law influenced by Hindu and Muslim legal frameworks. The code placed the British at the top of a system regarding caste and religion that was present in India at the time. This marked the beginning of more than a century of classical liberalism in British India—setting precedent for forms of racial discrimination, simply due to the widely held belief that the British naturally stood above Indians, and that they were not capable of governing themselves.

Scottish writer James Mill gained prominence among the British around this time. Generally regarded as a utilitarian imperialist influenced by classical liberalism, his most successful work was A History of British India, published in 1817. Mill effectively tarnished the Western appeal of India, dividing its history into three significant eras: Hindu (ancient), Muslim (medieval), and British (modern). Mill’s reductionist philosophy toward Indian history set harmful precedent for British figures and liberal policies in the years to come, including his son (John Stuart Mill), the policies of Governor General Thomas Macaulay, and numerous other figures. In his 1999 work Liberalism and Empire, Uday Singh Mehta outlines the framework that Mill proactively established, stating that a nation’s progress is dependent on a much more powerful nation:

"“Mill sees in the histories of backward civilizations a potentiality on account of which they can in fact progress. But the actualization of this potentiality typically turns on a force external to those civilizations … Hindu civilization, for Mill, epitomizes this condition of being stalled in the past. But various aspects of Hindu Civilization had prepared it for progressive transformation.”"

Mehta later goes on to highlight Mill’s argument that the Muslims laid the foundation for British rule to thrive, and that Hindu and Muslim culture were in need of assistance from the British. This motif among British liberalists, that Indians (both Hindus and Muslims), were not capable of civilized self-rule, appears again, as a common occurrence throughout the nineteenth century. The significance of Mill’s opus is noticeable in the abstract works of his son much later, but more importantly in the practical regulations established by Thomas Macaulay soon after. Macaulay served on Lord William Bentinck’s Governor-General Supreme Council from 1834-1838, and went on to publish his Minute on Indian Education in February of 1835. This work set precedent for English education to be mandated in India, with the same, staunchly negative perception the British garnered toward Indians, as stated throughout:

"“When we pass from works of imagination to works in which facts are recorded, and general principles investigated, the superiority of the Europeans becomes absolutely immeasurable … all the historical information which has been collected from all the books written in the Sanscrit language is less valuable than what may be found in the most paltry abridgments used at preparatory schools in England.”"

Macaulay’s minute is a clear representation of the harsh British perception toward Indian culture, language, and adequacy toward government that prevailed due to classical liberalism in the early nineteenth century, setting precedent for legislation in the years to come.

Indian intellectuals of the era

A key figure from early 19th century is Raja Ram Mohan Roy. He along with his compatriots created a constitutional history for India centred on a local judicial body called Panchayat. Roy himself put forward arguments in favour of Indian representation in Parliament and for constitutionally limiting the Company's power. He felt that the Indian public would be empowered by free press and service on juries under a liberal British government. Roy wanted modernity in curriculum for Indian students while not rejecting tradition outright. He was inspired by Christian humanism and insisted on reforming Hinduism, making it more ethical and rational.

Another important person was Gopal Krishna Gokhale, leader of the Indian National Congress who demanded self-rule for the nation reeling under Lord Curzon's oppressive rule.

Liberalism in post-independence period 

Soon after Indian independence, Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari (informally called Rajaji), began to see the risks to India of letting Nehru's fervor for socialism go unchallenged. Rajaji parted ways with the Indian National Congress in 1957 and formed the Swatantra Party which supported classical liberal principles and free enterprise. Since then, many new thinkers such as S. V. Raju, Sharad Anantrao Joshi, Barun Mitra, Lok Satta Jayaprakash Narayan, Parth J. Shah, Gurcharan Das, and Sauvik Chakraverti, Raghavendar Askani, Venkatesh Geriti, among others, have emerged on the Indian liberal scene, contributing to the debate on freedom in India, and advancing classical liberalism.

Economic liberalisation
India's first attempt at economic liberalisation was carried out in 1966 as a precondition to an increase in foreign aid.

The economic liberalisation of 1991, initiated by then-Prime Minister of India P. V. Narasimha Rao in response to a balance-of-payments crisis, did away with the License Raj and ended many public monopolies, allowing automatic approval of foreign direct investment in many sectors.


 * Liberal organisations
 * Swatantrata Center


 * Prominent Indian classical liberals
 * Dr. Jayaprakash Narayan
 * Prominent Indian left-liberals
 * Amartya Sen

Classical liberal parties

 * Lok Satta Party

Social-liberal or left-liberal parties

 * Biju Janata Dal
 * Indian National Congress
 * Nationalist Congress Party

Classical liberal parties

 * Swatantra Party

Social-liberal or left-liberal parties

 * Bharatiya Lok Dal