Maasai language



Maasai (previously spelled Masai) or Maa (autonym: ɔl Maa) is an Eastern Nilotic language spoken in Southern Kenya and Northern Tanzania by the Maasai people, numbering about 1.5 million. It is closely related to the other Maa varieties: Samburu (or Sampur), the language of the Samburu people of central Kenya, Chamus, spoken south and southeast of Lake Baringo (sometimes regarded as a dialect of Samburu); and Parakuyu of Tanzania. The Maasai, Samburu, il-Chamus and Parakuyu peoples are historically related and all refer to their language as ɔl Maa. Properly speaking, "Maa" refers to the language and the culture and "Maasai" refers to the people "who speak Maa".

Phonology
The Maasai variety of ɔl Maa as spoken in southern Kenya and Tanzania has 30 contrasting phonemes, including a series of implosive consonants. In Maasai, tone has a very productive role, conveying a wide range of grammatical and semantic functions.

Consonants
In the table of consonant phonemes below, phonemes are represented with IPA symbols. When IPA conventions differ from symbols normally used in practical writing, the latter are given in angle brackets.

For some speakers, implosive consonants are not ingressive (e.g. IlKeekonyokie Maa), but for others, they are lightly implosive or have a glottalic feature (e.g. Parakuyo Maa). In Arusha Maa, is typically realized as a voiceless fricative, but in some words, it can be a voiced trill. The sounds and occur in complementary distribution, with  occurring following a consonant, and  elsewhere.

Vowels
There are nine vowel phoneme qualities in Maasai

Vowel harmony
A feature that Maasai shares with the other Maa languages is advanced tongue root vowel harmony. In Maasai words, only certain combinations of vowels co-occur in the same word (i.e. vowel harmony), with the vowel being "neutral" in this system. In Maasai, advanced tongue vowels only co-occur with other advanced tongue vowels (i.e. /i e o u/) and /a/, whereas non-advanced tongue vowels (i.e. /ɪ ɛ ʊ ɔ/) only co-occur with each other and with /a/. Note that tones play no role in the harmony system.

Writing system
Maasai is writing using the Latin script with additional letters taken from the IPA, namely ⟨ɛ ɨ ŋ ɔ ʉ⟩, where the barred letters represent the near-close vowels. The orthography uses a few digraphs (e.g. ⟨rr⟩ for /r/, ⟨sh⟩ for /ʃ), and diacritics on vowels to represent tones. In this system, level tones are not represented, so that /ā ē ū/ etc. are represented as ⟨a e u⟩ and so forth.

Morphosyntax
Word order is usually verb–subject–object, but it can vary because tone is the most salient indicator of the distinction between subject and object roles. What determines the order in a clause is topicality since the order, in the most simple clauses, can be predicted according to the information structure pattern: [Verb – Most.Topical – Less.Topical]. Thus, if the object is highly topical in the discourse (e.g. a first-person pronoun), and the subject is less topical, the object occurs right after the verb and before the subject.

The Maasai language has only two fully grammatical prepositions but can use "relational nouns", along with a most general preposition, to designate specific locative ideas. Noun phrases begin with a demonstrative prefix or a gender-number prefix, followed by a quantifying noun or other head noun. Other modifiers follow the head noun, including possessive phrases.

In Maasai, many morphemes are tone patterns. The tone pattern affects the case, voice and aspect of words, as in the example below:

ɛ́yɛ́tá ɛmʊtí

ɛ̀-ɛ́t-á ɛn-mʊtí(LH)

3P-remove.one.by.one-PFV.SG DEF.FEM.SG-pot(ACC)

"She removed (meat) from the pot."

ɛyɛ́ta ɛmʊ́ti

ɛ̀-ɛ́t-a ɛn-mʊ́ti(HL)

3P-remove.one.by.one-IPFV.MID DEF.FEM.SG-pot(NOM)

"The pot is de-meated."

Noun classes
There are three noun classes in Maasai: feminine, masculine, and place. Noun classes are often indexed via prefixes on nouns (ol-/ɔl- for masculine, e[n]/ɛ[n]- for feminine), although other word classes such as demonstratives may also index gender. Although words belong to a given class (e.g. ɔl-aláshɛ̀ “brother”; ɛn-kái “God”), some roots can also occur with both prefixes (e.g. ol-ŋatúny “lion” vs. e-ŋatúny “lion-ness”).

"Who has come?" would be asked if the gender of the visitor were known. The noun would be preceded by a gendered prefix. If the gender of the visitor were unknown, "It is who that has come?" would be the literal [English translation] question.

Adjectives in Maa serve only to describe the noun, and they change tenses depending on the noun that they describe.

Pronouns in Maa usually assign gender (male, female, or place); if gender is unknown, the meaning of the noun in context usually refers to a gender. For example, the context of a female might include working in the house, and a male gender would be implied if the action referred to work outside the home. Maasai uses place as a personal pronoun because place can help identify male or female (i.e. an action occurring in the house will almost always be done by a female).

Tense-aspect-mood
Present tense in Maasai includes habitual actions, such as "I wake up" or "I cook breakfast". Past tense refers only to a past action, not to a specific time or place.

Usage
The Maasai have resisted the expansion of European languages as well as that of Swahili in East Africa. Maasai speakers engage in frequent trade using their language. However, close contact with other ethnic groups in East Africa and the rise of English as a lingua franca has led to a reduction in the speakers of Maasai. In Tanzania, former President Nyerere encouraged the adoption of Swahili as an official language to unite the many different ethnic groups in Tanzania, as well as English to compete on a global scale. Although the Maasai language, often referred to as Maa, has survived despite the mass influx of English and Swahili education systems, economic plans, and more, the socioeconomic climate that the Maasai people face in East Africa keeps them, and their language, as an under-represented minority.

The Maasai way of life is embedded in their language. Specifically, the economic systems of trade that the Maasai rely on to maintain their nomadic way of life, rely on the survival of the Maasai language, even in its minority status. With language endangerment, the Maasai people would continue to be threatened and their cultural integrity threatened. The minority status that the language currently faces has already threatened traditional Maasai practices. Fewer and fewer groups of Maasai continue to be nomadic in the region, choosing to settle instead in close-knit communities to keep their language and other aspects of their culture alive.