Ndombolo

Ndombolo, also known as dombolo, is a genre of dance music originating in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Derived from soukous in the 1990s, with fast-paced hip-swaying dance rhythms, often accompanied by upbeat, percussion-driven music, the style became widespread in the mid-1990s and the subsequent decade, dominating dancefloors in central, eastern, and western Africa. It inspired West African popular music, coupé-décalé, Kuduro, and East African dance music.

Ndombolo customarily features lead vocalists, backup vocalists, guitars, drums, and synthesized sounds. The lyrics often explore themes of human relations, marriage, courtship, trickery, disappointment, and Congolese sociopolitical culture. Prominent musicians such as Papa Wemba, Dany Engobo, Koffi Olomide, Werrason, Awilo Longomba, Quartier Latin International, Général Defao, Aurlus Mabélé, Extra Musica, Wenge Musica, and Wenge Musica Maison Mère played a pivotal role in popularizing the genre.

Etymology
Etymologically, "ndombolo" derives from Kikongo, meaning "to ask or solicit". The lexicologist Arizona M. Baongoli, specializing in Lingala, expounds that "ndombolo" encapsulates a genre of Congolese dance, literally meaning "gorilla" or "chimpanzee". The dance choreography involves hip gyrations, showcasing the posterior while executing forward and backward movements. Baongoli posits that this stylized dance mimics gorillas' and chimpanzees' gait, dance, or movements during courtship rituals. The Parisian writer Milau K. Lutumba elucidates that this metaphorical construct emerged as a collective expression of the Congolese populace's hope for an end to the brutality, terror, injustice, and misery perpetuated during the reign of president Mobutu Sese Seko. The genesis of the term coincided with Mobutu's ouster from power by the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo, led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila. In the aftermath of Mobutu's exile in May 1997, musicians immortalized Kabila as the embodiment of "ndombolo". Lutumba notes that this symbolic renaming marked a turning point in the country's history, signifying a desire for positive change and a departure from the oppressive era. The term took on additional layers of meaning when president Kabila, seen for the first time on television in 1996, was immediately identified as a ndombolo—a dwarf, a characterization stemming from the extensive time he spent in the bush as a guerrilla fighter, highlighting his pliability, elasticity, and strategic intelligence, reminiscent of the smart monkeys often depicted in African tales. In African folklore, the monkey character is portrayed as an intelligent figure who, through wit and cunning, prevails over larger, stronger animals such as lions and leopards.

Form
Ndombolo's dance style is characterized by convulsive and fast-paced hip movements with intricate steps, combining floating arm movements, whirling body rotations, and ape-like poses. Men typically bend low and box in the air while women undulate their hips and bottoms with plenty of facial expressions. The hip-swaying is often accompanied by synchronized footwork and precise leg movements while maintaining a relatively stationary upper body. Ndombolo is usually danced in pairs or groups. Dancers form close connections with their partners and engage in coquettish movements that reflect the connection present in the accompanying music.

Meanwhile, the musical elements unfold in a frenetic sébène, a cyclic repetition of a certain number of notes during the passage of two chords, with an emphasis on the rhythm guitar. This repetitive soundscape gains momentum as the tempo intensifies, with the guitarist incorporating gimmicks and caesuras to craft a distinctive sound. The role of the guitarist is shared with an atalaku, a singer who, from the music's outset, directs the percussion, galvanizes the audience, and augments assertive rhythms through impassioned MC harangue. The hypnotic sway of atalaku persists through powerful jolts of guitar and drums, emerging as the central pivot around which the rhythm revolves.

Origins and foreign label takeover
During the late 1960s and early 1970s, Franco Luambo, Tabu Ley Rochereau, and Zaïko Langa Langa revolutionized soukous by removing the horn section and wind instruments and elevating the snare drum and electric guitars. Nelson George notes that this transformation resulted in a high-octane auditory quality that produced hits and dance crazes that gained popularity across Africa and major European cities, launching the careers of many homegrown artists, most notably world music singer Papa Wemba. However, the fiscal insolvency that befell Congolese record labels such as Parions-Congo, Parions Mondenge, International Don-Dass, and Molende Kwi Kwi following the collapse of the Mazadis, Sophinza S.P.R.L., and Izason recording labels, coupled with the transition from vinyl to compact discs, led to national phonographic production sinking into lethargy during the 1980s. Foreign labels specializing in African and Caribbean music took over, starting with Sonodisc and Sonima (France). However, this also gave the Democratic Republic of the Congo a substantive platform for the proliferation and cultivation of homegrown artists.

Formation and paternity debate


By the end of the 1990s, musicians such as Radja Kula, Wenge Musica, Koffi Olomide, and Général Defao joined Sonodisc, orchestrating a paradigm shift that transformed soukous into raunchy, fast-paced dance music, renaming it ndombolo.

The genre's paternity is a subject of contentious debate, with some attributing it to Radja Kula in 1995, and others crediting Wenge Musica. Researcher Manda Tchebwa posits that Wenge Musica's generation was instrumental in shaping the style. The BBC has also credited the band, acknowledging them as pioneers of the style, with their rapid hip movements and body swaying, occasionally accompanied by abrupt gestures.

Heyday
Ndombolo quickly established itself as a popular African dance style across Africa and into the continent's diaspora in Belgium, France, the UK, Germany, Canada, and United States. In May 1997, JB Mpiana's ndombolo-infused debut album, Feux de l'amour, became the first ndombolo album to attain a gold record, with over 150,000 copies sold. This success reverberated in Central Africa, East Africa, France, and Belgium, which in turn augmented ndombolo's visibility in francophone and anglophone countries.

Koffi Olomide's ndombolo album Loi, released in December 1997, also secured a gold record, with 25,000 copies sold in France and 105,000 internationally. The album's eponymous single became synonymous with ndombolo dance, making waves across Africa and France with a combination of the singer's deep baritone voice and sophisticated arrangements, blending old-school rumba and keyboard melodies and ending in a guitar climax.

On 29 August 1998, Olomide became the first Congolese artist to sell out the Olympia Hall in Paris. The concert, featuring ndombolo-infused tracks, is widely acknowledged as crucial in popularizing the genre. In December 1998, the Extra Musica ensemble from the Republic of the Congo released their fourth studio album, Etat-Major, marking the first ndombolo record to attain broad success in English-speaking African countries. The album's eponymous single is characterized by multi-thematic lyrics, catchy melodies, and distorted guitar riffs.

Awilo Longomba played a significant role in popularizing ndombolo music much across West Africa. He has characterized his music as "techno-soukouss", signifying a new variation of soukous that integrates elements of techno music into ndombolo, sometimes fused with electro, dance music, or Afro zouk. In 1998, Longomba released his second studio album, titled Coupé Bibamba. The eponymous track, featuring Jocelyne Béroard, achieved widespread success in Africa and Europe as well as within diaspora communities globally, and remains popular in Africa. The song's broad appeal led to renditions in various native languages, including Yoruba and Nigerian Pidgin. The album's success bolstered Longomba's visibility, culminating in three consecutive sold-out concerts at Lagos National Stadium, establishing him as the first Congolese artist to dominate Nigerian airwaves.

In 1999, Wenge Musica Maison Mère debuted their ndombolo-infused album Solola Bien!, which achieved gold certification and experienced immediate success in Africa and France. The record's eponymous single, along with Ferré Gola's "Vita Imana", garnered significant popularity in France. Notably, Wenge Musica Maison Mère's track "Augustine" was recognized as one of the "five songs that made Congo dance" by the French pan-African weekly news magazine Jeune Afrique.

Censorship and resurgence
Laurent-Désiré Kabila's rise to power in Congo prompted speculation and misinformation, with rumors of impending bans on miniskirts, women's pants, and love song on airwaves, as well as the closure of nightclubs. In 1998, Libération reported a perceptible decrease in the number of soukous orchestras in Kinshasa, along with strict regulation of public spaces. Only a few nightclubs, including le Circus, le Seguin, le Gin Fizz, l'Imprévu, l'Atmosphère, le Savanana, and le M16 remained accessible for public revelry.

By the early 2000s, numerous African television stations banned ndombolo due to its perceived "pornographic" nature, alleging that it compromised youth morality. In Cameroon, ndombolo faced prohibition for being deemed excessively erotic and obscene. Critics contended that Cameroon's imposition emanated from the belief that ndombolo encroached upon local music genres like makossa and bikutsi. Paradoxically, despite prohibitions, many artists continued to release records that dominated discos, bars, and clubs across Africa, characterized by their distinctive bass, tingling guitars, and soaring falsettos. In Europe, the sound became synonymous with African music, catapulting artists like Papa Wemba into high demand.

On 19 February 2000, Olomide made history as the first African solo artist as well as ndombolo artist to headline a sold-out performance at the Palais Omnisports de Paris-Bercy in Paris (now Accor Arena), selling 17,000 tickets solely through word-of-mouth promotion. His performance garnered the attention of ndombolo enthusiasts and set a precedent for subsequent Congolese musicians. According to a report by Libération, more than 5,000 people were unable to gain entry due to seating capacity constraints. On 16 September 2000, Wenge Musica Maison Mère followed suit, becoming the second African act to achieve a sold-out concert at the same venue. On 26 June 2001, Werrason released his debut album, titled Kibuisa Mpimpa (alternately known as Opération dragon). The record, a fusion of ndombolo and Congolese rumba, achieved immense popularity in Africa, earning Werrason two consecutive Kora Awards, for Best Male Artist of Africa and Best Male Artist of Central Africa, in the same year. On 22 September 2001, JB Mpiana became the third Congolese artist to perform at Paris-Bercy, captivating his audience with several ndombolo tracks. During this period, ndombolo gained significant traction in Paris, with Radio France Internationale reporting that it had garnered substantial attention beyond the "Afro community circles of Paris" in April 2003. The genre was noted to be "seducing the post-black-white-beur generation, in the name of an increasingly strong discourse on diversity".

In December 2003, Wenge Musica Maison Mère released a two-track maxi-single titled Tindika Lokito, which included the eponymous song, used in promotion for the beer brand Skol, along with "Allez À L'Ecole". "Tindika Lokito" boosted ndombolo's appeal in Central Africa, French-speaking regions of West Africa, East Africa, France, and Belgium. Its success led to Werrason receiving two consecutive Kora Awards, for Best Male African Artist and Best Central African Male. Following this, in December 2004, Koffi Olomide released the double album Monde Arabe, noted for its fusion of ndombolo and Congolese rumba with acoustic guitar interludes, which sparked a fashion trend known as "Sabot Monde Arabe" that featured round-toed slippers adorned with pearls, covering the phalanges and metatarsals of the foot.

By 2007, Faustin Linyekula emerged as the genre's most influential dancer and choreographer, instrumental in popularizing its dance form in France. In an online interview, Linyekula elucidated that the genre's dance informs his "choreographic process and cultural identity", drawing from the dynamism of ndombolo dance to explore the "carnal possibilities central to ndombolo's power and popularity". In July 2007, his Festival des mensonges was presented at the Festival d'Avignon, along with Dinozord: The Dialogue Series (2006), and later won the 2007 Principal Prince Claus Award. On 15 August 2009, Wenge Musica Maison Mère published the album Techno Malewa Sans Cesse volume 1, which also blended ndombolo and Congolese rumba. The album's hit single "Techno Malewa Mécanique", featuring atalakus Brigade Sarbati and Lobeso, gained substantial popularity across Africa and among the continent's diaspora in Belgium and France, leading to a performance at Zénith de Paris. The song was also awarded Best Sound at the 2014 Nollywood and African Film Critics Awards in the United States, five years after its debut. They followed this with Techno malewa suite et fin volume 1, released in August 2011, a double album predominantly blending Congolese rumba and ndombolo, which peaked at number two in the Congolese Hit Parade of the newspaper L'Avenir, after Bande Annonce by Jossart N'yoka Longo of Zaïko Langa Langa.

2010s


Fally Ipupa's "Original" became a hit in 2014, reigniting interest in the genre after prominent ndombolo artists migrated to Europe. By the end of 2014, Fabregas Le Métis Noir debuted his seven-track EP, titled Anapipo, which achieved great success and garnered recognition throughout Africa. The album's standout ndombolo-infused single "Mascara" sparked the Ya Mado dance trend, leading to the #YaMadoChallenge on social media, where numerous online personalities emulated the dance and nominated others to participate. The song also brought attention to the African dashiki, a colorful patterned shirt that became colloquially known as "Ya Mado", in reference to the accompanying dance. However, the song faced a government ban on airplay in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, citing the Ya Mado dance as "indecent".

Koffi Olamide's ndombolo-inspired song "Selfie" (alternately known as "Ekoti té"), from his 2015 studio album 13ème Apôtre, rapidly became a viral sensation, amassing over a million views on YouTube within three weeks of its release. The accompanying hashtag #OpérationSelfie gained traction across various social media platforms and was endorsed by celebrities such as French singer Matt Pokora, Ivorian footballer Didier Drogba, and French-Congolese footballer Blaise Matuidi. Meanwhile, Félix Wazekwa's breakthrough single "Fimbu", steeped in ndombolo rhythms, gained immense popularity during the lead-up to the 2016 African Nations Championship and emerged as a celebratory anthem for the Congolese national football team during the 2017 Africa Cup of Nations, inspiring a synchronized dance among players to commemorate each goal scored.



In June 2018, BM released a remix of his single "Rosalina", featuring Awilo Longomba, which gave rise to the "#RosalinaChallenge" trend on TikTok, Instagram, and YouTube. This trend features exhilarating ndombolo motions synchronized with pulsating Congolese rhythms, encapsulating the precise articulation of the entire physical form, from limbs to waist. "Ecole", from Fally's November 2018 album, Control, introduced a new dance known as the "Ecole dance", synonymous with ndombolo dance moves, embraced by numerous dancers on social networks.

Emerging ndombolo artists like Innoss'B, Robinio Mundibu, Gaz Mawete, and the Paris-based Ya Levis Dalwear surfaced. In September 2019, Inoss'B released a remix of his song "Yope", featuring Tanzanian singer Diamond Platnumz, which became one of the most-viewed ndombolo songs on YouTube as well as the first song in East and Central Africa to surpass 150 Million views. The "Yope dance challenge" emerged on various social media platforms as a result of the remix, influencing Diamond Platnumz to incorporate dance sequences from it into his subsequent release, "Baba Lao". In June 2020, the song earned Innocent a nomination for Best New International Act at the BET Awards.

2020s
In November 2020, Diamond Platnumz released a successful crossover ndombolo-infused Swahili song, "Waah", featuring Koffi Olomide. It became the first Sub-Saharan African song to reach two million views on YouTube in less than 24 hours. In June 2021, Tanzanian singer Ali Kiba released his single "Ndombolo", featuring K2ga, Tommy Flavour, and Abdu Kiba, which was later used as a sample song for the ndombolo music genre on the Grammy Awards website.

On 24 September 2021, Congo-Brazzaville singer Roga Roga and Extra Musica released the single "Bokoko", from their eponymous EP. It quickly became a hit in Kinshasa, where it was played in various bars and clubs, and it gained prominence in French-speaking and Anglophone African regions. "Bokoko" became the first ndombolo hit to receive three consecutive awards, including the Kundé d'Or for Charismatic Leader of Central Africa in Burkina Faso, the Special Prize for selling African music worldwide at the 2021 Primud in Ivory Coast, and the Francophonie Prize at Lokumu, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

On 15 May 2022, French-Congolese singer Dadju released the ndombolo single "Ambassadeur", later certified gold, from his album Cullinan, shortly after being appointed as a cultural ambassador for the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The song, featuring the Paris-based Congolese atalaku Brigade Sarbati, quickly became popular and amassed eleven million views on YouTube within a month.

On 16 December 2022, Congo-Brazzaville singer-songwriter Afara Tsena Fukuchima debuted his single "Afro Mbokalisation", which fuses elements of ndombolo, particularly the sebene instrumental section, with coupé-décalé, characterized by a predominance of piano and guitar riffs. "Afro Mbokalisation" accrued over three million views in a single month and catalyzed the popularization of the mopacho dance through TikTok dance challenges. This dance, originally conceived in 1990 by the Brazzaville artist Sixte Singha, was subsequently embraced by prominent artists from Congo-Kinshasa, such as Fally Ipupa, Tidiane Mario, and Gaz Mawete, as well as Ivorian singer Serge Beynaud.

On 6 October 2023, another Franco-Congolese singer, Jungeli, premiered his single "Petit Génie", which included guest appearances by Imen Es, Alonzo, Abou Debeing, and Lossa. Co-produced by the Orchard, Next Generation, 2054 Records, and Fulgu Prod, "Petit Génie" quickly gained traction. Excerpts of the single were prematurely leaked and extensively shared on TikTok, leading to a surge in popularity even before its official release. The song achieved commercial success in France, topping SNEP's Top Singles chart for 18 non-consecutive weeks and breaking records for airplay, streams, and digital downloads. It came close to the absolute record, held by American singer-songwriter Pharrell Williams' "Happy", which had spent 22 non-consecutive weeks at the top of the charts. "Petit Génie" was honored with the Best Piece of African or African-inspired Music prize at Les Flammes.

French rap
Ndombolo has strongly impacted French hip hop from the Congolese diaspora. The group Bisso Na Bisso pioneered the infusion of Congolese guitar patterns and rhythms into French rap in late 1990's.

French rapper Naza pioneered the infusion of ndombolo rhythms into French rap. In September 2017, he released his Platinum-certified album Incroyable, predominantly blending ndombolo rhythms. Adorned with lead guitar tributes to musical collectives like Wenge Musica, Extra Musica, Quartier Latin, and Viva La Musica, the record emerged as a defining ndombolo-rap fusion in France. This success paved the way for subsequent hits like Dadju's "Mafuzzy Style" (2018), Belgian rapper Damso's "Même issue", and Maître Gims with "Na Lingui Yo"

Ivorian coupé-décalé
Ndombolo has exerted a significant influence on the evolution of the Ivorian dance style known as coupé-décalé. Emerging in the early 2000s, coupé-décalé extensively draws from the Zouglou genre of Ivory Coast while also integrating elements of ndombolo, techno, and tribal house music. The influence of ndombolo is evident in the percussion-driven, repetitive rhythms and the emphasis on intricate hip and body movements that characterize coupé-décalé. Coupé-décalé essentially accelerates the speed of the ndombolo beat, particularly at the level of the bass drum and snare drum, creating a fast-paced cadence. Ethnomusicology professor Ty-Juana Taylor of the University of California posits that ndombolo laid the groundwork for the coupé-décalé dance, a perspective echoed by Ivorian researcher El Hadji Yaya Koné. Coupé-décalé artists frequently incorporate ndombolo-inspired dance steps and choreography into their performances, resulting in a fusion of the two styles.

This view is further supported by Ivorian music journalist Diarra Tiemoko of Soir Info, who notes the early use of pseudo-Lingala language in coupé-décalé songs during the genre's evolution. Tiemoko also highlights the influence of Congolese artists such as DJ Shega Mokonzi and Ronaldo R9 on Ivorian DJs, particularly in the early albums released in Ivory Coast. The incorporation of atalaku entertainers, whose role is to enhance songs and engage listeners in dancing, has been pivotal in coupé-décalé's early development. The concept of atalaku was first employed by the Congolese band Zaïko Langa Langa, pioneered by members Nono Monzuluku and Bébé Atalaku in the 1980s. In one of their early compositions featuring these animators, the chant "Atalaku! Tala! Atalaku mama, Zekete" (Look at me! Look! Look at me, mama! Zekete!) was repeated, commanding attention. Coupé-décalé musician Douk Saga's debut single, "Sagacité", is recognized for its incorporation of atalaku. Douk Saga, initially in Paris in the early 2000s, developed this novel mode of musical expression, combining the Congolese sartorial subculture of La Sape with the percussion of soukous and ndombolo. Coupé-décalé rapidly gained international acclaim through DJs, spreading throughout West Africa and eventually reaching Central Africa. In an interview with Radio France Internationale, DJ Arafat, a renowned Ivorian artist, acknowledged the influence of atalaku on his style.