Oikonyms in Western and South Asia

Oikonyms in Western, Central, South, and Southeast Asia can be grouped according to various components, reflecting common linguistic and cultural histories. Toponymic study is not as extensive as it is for placenames in Europe and Anglophone parts of the world, but the origins of many placenames can be determined with a fair degree of certainty. One complexity to the study when discussing it in English is that the Romanization of names, during British rule and otherwise, from other languages has not been consistent.

Names after natural features
In Rajasthan, names are frequently given after rock, stone, ravine, and embankment. In the Gangetic plain, the predominant natural features are trees, grass prairies, and bodies of water. Prominent trees, visible from a long way off, would often serve as landmarks and give their name to places before there was any permanent settlement there. This was especially the case where a large tree indicated a ford across a river; for example, the name Gaighāṭ indicates a ford next to an agai tree. Tree names are especially common in areas that were historically under dense forest cover until recent centuries.

Common affixes
Common affixes used in South Asian oikonyms can be grouped based on their linguistic origin: (with examples from India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, and elsewhere such as in Sanskrit-influenced Indonesia):

wal, wali, wala, warree, vli, vadi, vali, pady and palli
Means hamlet &mdash; e.g. Dombivli; Kasan Wala; Sandhilianwali;Gujranwala

Kot
Means "fort" &mdash; Pathankot; Sialkot

Patnam, patham, pattana
Means "city", or "city of" &mdash; e.g. Visakhapatnam'

Alay
Means "abode"; from Sanskrit ā-laya. e.g. Meghalaya, Himalaya, Lokā-laya (settlement).

-aulī, -olī
These suffixes are very common, especially -aulī. In many cases, they are probably derived from Sanskrit palli, referring to a hamlet or small village. For example, Bārḍolī in Gujarat is attested in a Rashtrakuta-era inscription as Vāraḍapallikā. Names with these suffixes may also come from Sanskrit valli, meaning "section" or "part"; either origin is plausible.

At some point, it seems that -aulī became regarded as a distinct morpheme by itself, and apparently used independently as a suffix without being derived from an earlier form. For example, the names Shamsaulī and Shekhauliyā must have coined after the Muslim conquest to simply mean something like "Shams ud-Dīn's village".

The form -aulī also seems to have become standardised and absorbed similar forms by analogy. For example, Dubaulī (from Dūbe) is a common village name in eastern Uttar Pradesh, but it is not the regular, expected form of the name. The regular form would be Dubelī, which exists but is far less common. In most cases, the name was assimilated to -aulī by analogy with other places with names ending in -aulī.

Bāns
Means bamboo, from Sanskrit vaṃśa. It was historically common for villages to be surrounded by bamboo groves that were planted as a form of defence. In many cases, it can be hard to distinguish between places named with bāns from places named with bās ("dwelling"), since bās sometimes becomes nasalised and bāns sometimes becomes de-nasalised. Examples of places named with bāns are Bānsgāon and Bānsī.

Baṛ, Bargad, Vaḍ
The names baṛ and bargad both refer to the banyan tree, ultimately from Sanskrit vaṭa. This is a very common place name element; according to Sankalia, many towns and villages may have originally started out as temporary shelters underneath the wide canopy of a banyan tree. As they grew into more permanent settlements, they kept the name. Baṛ has the common variations baḍ and baṭ. Another variant is vaḍ, as in Vaḍodarā.

Chak
A common prefix, especially in eastern Uttar Pradesh. The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary defines chak (चक) with several meanings, including "a piece of assigned or rent-free land"; "the detached or unconsolidated fields of a village"; and simply "a sub-division of land". It derives the term from Sanskrit chakra, meaning "circle". Whalley, on the other hand, preferred a derivation from Persian chak, noting that "Chak" is frequently followed by a Muslim name.

Desh
Means village, land, country; from Sanskrit देश (desa) for "country" &mdash; e.g. Bangladesh. In Indonesia it becomes Desa which is another Indonesian word for "village".

-ehrā
In many cases, this ending is probably a "worn-down" descendant of earlier -kheṛa ("village").

Gaṛh
Means fortress &mdash; Chandigarh, Ramgarh

Gaṛhī
According to Whalley, Gaṛhī when used as a prefix probably in most cases originally referred to a village surrounded by a ditch.

Maū, -mai
In many cases, the place name element Maū (or mai) may be derived from Sanskrit maryādā, meaning "shore" or "bank". This name is usually given to places by a river, stream, or jhil (for example, Ḍalmaū on the Gaṅgā). Examples of these names are Arghaṭmaū ("the bank or shore where the water-wheel is"), Bhainsmai ("shore where cattle or horses graze"), or Pathrāmai ("stony shore"). In other cases, maū is a contraction of mahuā: the mahua tree, Madhuca longifolia.

Some places have Maū as a standalone name (for example, Maū, Uttar Pradesh), while in other cases -maū is a suffix or even a prefix. The name Māwai is a variant of Maū.

Nagar
Means city, land, country, village; from Sanskrit नगर (nagara) &mdash; e.g. Ahmednagar, Biratnagar. In Indonesian, the word Negara means "country" and the word Nagari is a term used in West Sumatra referring to "village". Also used in Borneo island, e.g. Negara Brunei Darussalam

Many modern names using nagar in full are relatively recent origin; older names with nagar have often been shortened to nār or ner.

At least in northern India, nagar is not used as a prefix. Instead, the forms Naglā or, more rarely, Nagrā, are used. About 100 places also have the feminine forms Nagariyā and Nagariyā.

Nawādā
Apparently derived from Sanskrit nivāsa, "dwelling", combined with the Persian name Nauābād ("new settlement"). Nawādā, along with its feminine variant Nawādiyā, is a very common village name by itself, and it is also used as a prefix for other names.

-on
In many cases, this ending is probably a "worn-down" descendant of earlier -gāon ("village") or -ban ("forest").

-padra, -vadra, -darā
The Sanskrit term padra denoted a roadside village or residence (related to pad, meaning "foot"). Beginning around the 5th century, a regular sound change took place where /p/ became /v/ between vowels, turning this suffix into -vadra in many place names. In many modern place names, -vadra has further morphed into -darā. For example, Vaḍodarā is from an earlier attested form Vaṭapadra, Talodrā is from Talapadra or Talapadraka, and Lāṭhodrā is from Lāṭhivadra (attested in Chaulukya-era epigraphy). Similar names like Saḍodarā and Raṇodarā probably share the same origin, although their older forms are not directly attested.

Pahāṛ and Pahār
Pahāṛ, with the retroflex ṛ, means a hill, cliff, or overhanging river bank. Pahār with a non-retroflex r is a personal name, derived from Sanskrit prahāra. It can be hard to tell these place name elements apart because they can be easily confused in other scripts.

Paṭṭī
From Hindi paṭṭī, meaning "strip", itself derived from Sanskrit paṭṭikā. As a place name element, it is used in the sense of "a strip of land". In some cases it refers to a share of land held in joint tenure by a pattidar (literally "shareholder").

Pilkhu, Pilkhan, Pākaṛ, Pākhaṛ
These are all names for the pilkhan tree, one of several varieties of fig tree viewed as sacred in Hinduism. The forms pilkhu and pilkhan come from Sanskrit plakṣā, while pākaṛ and pākhaṛ come from Sanskrit #Sanskrit parkaṭī. One place with this name is Pilkhuwā.

Pind
literally "lump" or a small altar of sand

Pīpal
The pīpal tree, Ficus religiosa, is a common place name element.

Pur
Means village, town, state, country; from Sanskrit पुर (pura) &mdash; e.g. Jamalpur; Kanpur; Khanpur. In Southeast Asian and some south Asian countries, it is known as pura, e.g. Anuradhapura, Singapura, and Indonesian cities such as Jayapura, Siak Sri Indrapura, etc. In Indonesia, pura also refers to a Hindu temple.

In ancient times, the word pura strictly referred to a fort, but its meaning was gradually broadened to include any town regardless of its particular function. By the early medieval period, pura was often used to denote a commercial centre – especially in southern India, where the typical form was puram.

In many cases, old names originally ending in -pura have become shortened to -or over the centuries. In the case of Mangrol (originally Maṅgalapura), the suffix has become -rol instead.

The variant purā often originally referred to a suburb, or to a Muslim colony.

Pur is not used as a prefix. Instead, the form Purā is used. In west-central Uttar Pradesh, around Kanpur and Etawah, the prefix takes the form Purwā. Farther east, toward Basti, it takes the form Pure. The feminine form Purī is rarely found as a prefix.

Semal, semar, simra, sambal
Many places are named after the semal tree. There are many variations of this place name. One place with this name is Sambhal, where the form sambal ended up becoming aspirated.

-vāḍā
According to Sankalia, this suffix has two possible origins: from -pāṭaka, which originally designated "a large, but private house, or settlement within a village"; and -vāṭaka, which denoted "a temporarily enclosed place, such as a garden, plantation, or an enclosure of a (low caste) village consisting of boundary trees". The shortened form pāḍā appears early on in Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit, and in early Jain literature refers to a suburb of a larger town. In Gujarat, the present form -vāḍā first appears in inscriptions dating to the Chaulukya period. -Vāḍā continued to be used productively to form new place names; it would have been originally given to private settlements "characterised either by a personal name or a prominent physiographical feature". Modern names ending in -vāḍā are descended from either ancient names that originally ended in either -pāṭaka or -vāṭaka, or more recent names that originally ended in -vāḍā.

An example is Delvāḍā. This name is attested in a Maitraka inscription as Devakula-pāṭaka, which would have later been contracted to *Devalvāḍā and then Deülavāḍā (which is attested in a Chaulukya inscription) before finally reaching the present form.

In Maharasthra, the term vāḍā refers to a built-up area, with or without an enclosure, belonging to a private citizen.

-vasaṇa
From Sanskrit, meaning "dwelling" or "residence" (of either an individual or a group). This suffix is especially common in northern Gujarat. Some places, such as Jetalvasana, contain the entire suffix without any modification. Others, like Chadasana, Jhulasan, Lunasan, Nandasan, and Ranasan (all of which are mentioned in medieval inscriptions with the suffix -vasaṇa), have had the suffix modified to -saṇ(ā) or -san(ā) over time.

-wāṛī
From Sanskrit vāṭikā, meaning "orchard" or "garden". Commonly paired with tree names, e.g. Siswārī. Some examples with tribal names are also found; these are probably references to an individual person; examples are Bharwārī and Lodhwārī.

Ābād/abat/apat
(آباد): - -abad is a Persian "dwelling of" or "town of", combined with a person's or group's name (usually the founder or primary inhabitant(s)) &mdash; e.g. Hyderabad; Islamabad; Mirza Abad; Ashgabat; Leninabad; Vagharshapat; Sardarabad; Sardarapat. Being a generic and an ambiguous term referring to small isolated farms, village (but not city) on one hand, and towns and cities, on the other hand. See also abadi (settlement).

Bandar
Means "port" (بندر) &mdash; e.g. Bandar Abbas; see

Dasht
Means field, desert (دشت) &mdash; e.g. Hulandasht; see

Ihtimalī and Ghair Ihtimalī
From Perso-Arabic iḥtimāl, meaning "probability". In historical South Asian revenue terminology, Ihtimali referred to flood-prone lands along river banks or in low-lying areas. Ghair Ihtimali meant the opposite, i.e. not liable to flooding during the rainy season. These were used in place names to distinguish two villages with the same name, such as Todarpur Ihtimali and Todarpur Ghair Ihtimali in present-day Aligarh district, India.

Khās
From Arabic khāṣṣ, meaning "selected" or "private". In India, it was historically used to refer to a place managed directly by the government or by a jagirdar, without any intermediaries. For example, Jamal Mohd Siddiqi identifies six places with "khās" in their name in present-day Aligarh district, India. All six were founded by Rajput chiefs during the Mughal period, and they all occupy a prominent position on high ground. Khās is also sometimes used in cases where there are two villages with the same name; in this case, khās is affixed to the older and/or larger one.

Kuy
Means "neighborhood" (کوی) &mdash; e.g. Kordkuy; see

Mazar
(in various languages) shrine, grave, tomb, etc. (from مزار), cf. "Mazar (mausoleum)". The placename usually refers to a grave of a saint, ruler, etc.: Mazar-i-Sharif; see

Mazra or Majra
Derived from Arabic mazraʕ, which originally refers to a farm field. In parts of India, though, the term refers to a hamlet or cluster of houses that is separate from, but subordinate to, a larger village. (The reason for the hamlet's separation is so that farmers can be closer to their crops.) Places with Majra in their name typically originated in this manner and later became independent villages of their own.

Milk
Derived from Arabic milk, meaning "possession" or "property". Like chak, it was historically used to designate a rent-free piece of land. Milk in particular usually designated land held by Muslim zamindars.

Munzabtah
Derived from Perso-Arabic munzabt, meaning "confiscated". For example, the village of Raipur Munzabtah in Aligarh district got its name because it was confiscated by the British government after its pattidar participated in the Indian Rebellion of 1857.

Mutafarriqat
From Arabic mutafarriqāt, literally meaning "miscellaneous". This was used historically to denote a fiscal or administrative unit consisting of various scattered pieces of land. Villages called "mutafarriqat" are so named because they belonged to such a unit.

Nisfi
Derived from Arabic niṣf, meaning "half". For example, the village of Marhauli Nisfi Ashrafabad in present-day Aligarh district was formed by taking out a half portion from Ashrafabad.

Raiyyat
From Perso-Arabic ra'iyyat, meaning "subjects, peasants, cultivators". It is used, for example, in the name of Lalpur Raiyyatpur in present-day Aligarh district, which likely originated as a settlement of peasants under the zamindar of nearby Lalpur.

Shahr, shehr
Means "city" &mdash; e.g. Bulandshahr

Kale, Kaleh, Qala, Qalat, Qila
Means fort, fortress, castle; see also "Qalat (fortress)" — e.g. Makhachkala, Akhalkalaki, Solzha-Ghala, Dzaudzhikau

Ganj, gunj, gunge
Persian-Urdu, taken to mean neighborhood in Indian context. For example, Daryaganj, Sunamganj

Basti
Refers to a granted habitat, also sanctuary from the Persian suffix, bastī &mdash; e.g. Basti Maluk, Azam Basti

Nahr
نهر, river, e.g., Nahr-e Mian; see

Nahri
Means (irrigation) canal

Dera
Means "tent" &mdash; e.g. Dera Ghazi Khan, Dera Ismail Khan

-gerd/-kert
Examples: Darabgerd, Dastagird, Dastjerd, Khosrowjerd, Farhadgerd, Stepanakert, Tigranakert

-Stan, Estan
Means "a place abounding in...", "place of..." &mdash; e.g. Afghanistan; Pakistan