Orthonairovirus

Orthonairovirus is a genus of viruses in the family Nairoviridae of the order Bunyavirales that include viruses with circular, negative-sense single stranded RNA. It got its name from the Nairobi sheep disease that affects the gastrointestinal tracts of sheep and goats. The vast majority, and perhaps all viruses in this genus are tick-borne viruses that can have human or other vertebrate hosts.

Structure
The virions for viruses in this genus have a spherical shape. They range in size from about 80–120 nm in diameter, with 50% of their weight attributed to proteins and 20–30% of their weight attributed to lipids. The ribonucleocapsid is filamentous, having a length of about 200-300 nm and a width of about 2–2.5 nm. These nucleocapsids are surrounded by a single envelope that has projections made of glycoproteins protruding from its surface. These projections evenly cover the surface of the virion, and are about 5–10 nm long. They aid in attachment to the host receptor in replication.

Genome
Nairovirus genomes are negative sense, single-stranded RNA. The complete genome is about 17,100–22,800 nucleotides long, and is divided into three segments: large, medium, and small. The large segment is about 11000–14400 nucleotides long (11–14.4 kb), and it encodes the viral polymerase. The medium segment is about 4,400–6,300 nucleotides long (4.4–6.3 kb), and it encodes for glycoproteins G¬n and Gc. The small segment is about 1,700–2,100 nucleotides long (1.7–2.1 kb), and it encodes the nucleocapsid protein. <

The genome has terminally redundant sequences, with the sequences being repeated at both ends. The terminal nucleotides are base-paired forming, non-covalently closed, circular RNA. Both the 5’ and 3’ ends have conserved regions, 9 nucleotides in length. The sequences are, 5’end: UCUCAAAGA, and 3’end: AGAGUUUCU.

Replication
Nairoviruses attach to the host receptor by their Gn-Gc glycoprotein dimer. The virus is then endocytosed into the host cell via a vesicle. The ribonucleocapsid segments are released into the cytoplasm, commencing transcription. Transcription and replication occur within the cell, and the newly synthesized virions are released by budding.

Transmission and distribution
Members of this viral genus infect many different vertebrate hosts, and are transmitted via ticks.

Members of the genus Nairovirus may be found the world over, wherever their arthropod vectors and vertebrate hosts are found together.

Clinical importance
Only four viruses in this genus have, to date, been recognised as human pathogens:


 * Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus
 * Dugbe virus
 * Nairobi sheep disease virus
 * Kasokero virus

A fifth— Erve virus —may also be pathogenic for humans.

Evolution
Phylogenetic analysis has shown that these viruses fall into two major monophyletic groups, the hard (Ixodidae) and soft (Argasidae) tick-vectored groups. Fossil and phylogenetic data places the hard tick-soft tick divergence between and. This suggests that the Nairoviruses have been associated with these ticks for over 100 million years.

Additionally, nairoviruses vectored by ticks of the genera Argas, Carios and Ornithodoros form three separate monophyletic lineages, again supporting the suggestion of host-virus cospeciation.

The hard bodied tick serogroups are


 * Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever
 * Nairobi sheep disease
 * Sakhalin
 * Tamdy

The soft bodied tick serogroups are


 * Hughes
 * Dera Ghazi Khan
 * Qalyub

The tick vectors for the Kasokero and Thiafora serogroups are not currently known.

Taxonomy
The genus includes 41 species:


 * Abu Hammad orthonairovirus
 * Abu Mina orthonairovirus
 * Artashat orthonairovirus
 * Avalon orthonairovirus
 * Bandia orthonairovirus
 * Burana orthonairovirus
 * Chim orthonairovirus
 * Congoid orthonairovirus
 * Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever orthonairovirus
 * Dera Ghazi Khan orthonairovirus
 * Dugbe orthonairovirus
 * Erve orthonairovirus
 * Estero Real orthonairovirus
 * Gossas orthonairovirus
 * Hazara orthonairovirus
 * Huangpi orthonairovirus
 * Hughes orthonairovirus
 * Issyk-kul orthonairovirus
 * Kasokero orthonairovirus
 * Keterah orthonairovirus
 * Kupe orthonairovirus
 * Leopards Hill orthonairovirus
 * Meram orthonairovirus
 * Nairobi sheep disease orthonairovirus
 * Pacific Coast orthonairovirus
 * Punta orthonairovirus
 * Qalyub orthonairovirus
 * Sakhalin orthonairovirus
 * Sapphire orthonairovirus
 * Scot orthonairovirus
 * Soldado orthonairovirus
 * Tacheng orthonairovirus
 * Taggert orthonairovirus
 * Tamdy orthonairovirus
 * Thiafora orthonairovirus
 * Tofla orthonairovirus
 * Tunis orthonairovirus
 * Vinegar Hill orthonairovirus
 * Wenzhou orthonairovirus
 * Yogue orthonairovirus
 * Zirqa orthonairovirus