Proto-Kra language

Proto-Kra is the reconstructed ancestor of the Kra languages. It was reconstructed in 2000 by Weera Ostapirat in his Ph.D. dissertation.

Lower-level reconstructions
Ostapirat (2000) provided preliminary phonological reconstructions for several lower-level groupings before attempting a reconstruction of Proto-Kra.


 * Proto-Kra
 * Proto-South-Western Kra
 * Proto-Western Kra (Gelao, Lachi)
 * Proto-Southern Kra (Laha)
 * Proto-Central-East Kra
 * Proto-Central Kra (Paha)
 * Proto-Eastern Kra (Buyang, Qabiao)

Consonants
Proto-Kra has a total of 32 consonants, seven of which (marked in green) can occur as syllable finals (Ostapirat 2000:224, 236).

Miyake (2008, 2021)
Marc Miyake (2008, 2021 ) proposes alternative reconstructions for Ostapirat's (2000) Proto-Kra retroflex consonants, suggesting that many of them were actually non-retroflexes that had been influenced by pre-syllables, in particular with alveolar consonants leniting in intervocalic position. In synchronic Kra languages, reflexes are often attested as voiced fricatives, which Miyake (2021) does not believe to have developed from historical initial retroflex consonants. Some examples of Miyake's (2008) revised Proto-Kra reconstructions are provided below.


 * *tsəm 'one' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *tʂəmC)
 * *tsun 'teach' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *tʂunA)
 * *N-tsu 'pillar' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *m-tʂuA)
 * *nok 'bird' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *ɳokD)
 * *nui 'snow' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *ɳuiA)
 * *nəl 'fat' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *(m-)ɳəlA)
 * *CV-nəŋh 'salty' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *ʔ-ɳəŋB)
 * *na 'thick' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *C-naA)
 * *nak 'give' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *nakD)
 * *klep 'fingernail' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *ʈ-lepD)
 * *(k/tV-)loŋ 'vegetable' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *ɖ-loŋA)

Miyake (2021) reconstructs some disyllabic lexical forms for Proto-Kra, including *mataA 'eye', *manokD 'bird', and *kVtuA1 'louse'.

Additionally, Miyake (2008) revises Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *pwl- as *CV-pl-, *bwl- as *CV-bl-, *m-pl- as *pl-, *(p/d/k)-l- as *(p/d/k)V-l-, *ʈ-l- as k-l-, and *ɖ-l- as *(k/tV)-l-. Proto-Kra consonants in Miyake (2021) as compared to Ostapirat (2000) are:

Vowels
Proto-Kra has a total of 6 vowels (Ostapirat 2000:235).

Proto-Kra has 4 diphthongs, which are not found in closed syllables.

Tones
Proto-Kra had an A–B–C–D tonal system typical of other Tai–Kadai languages (see Proto-Tai language). The tonal descriptions below are from Ostapirat (2000:237).


 * 1) *A: *A is one of the most common tones.
 * 2) *B: *B and *D are  phonetically similar, as reflexes of tone *D are often the same as those of *B. This regularly occurs in all Kra languages except for Qabiao.
 * 3) *C: *C is usually accompanied by glottal constriction and may have originally had a creaky or tense laryngeal quality. Some Gelao varieties and Yalang Buyang display the same reflex for *B and *C.
 * 4) *D: *D is the only tone to occur exclusively in closed syllables.

The following table of phonetic characteristics of Proto-Kra tones was adapted from Ostapirat (2000:237).

Lexicon
Below are reconstructed Proto-Kra forms from Ostapirat (2000).


 * Body parts and bodily functions
 * *taiC 'armpit (1)'
 * *ljeA 'armpit (2)'
 * *mumC 'beard'
 * *hmokD 'belly'
 * *platD 'blood (1)'
 * *kɣaC 'blood (2)'
 * *plaɯC 'boil (n.)'
 * *dəkD 'bone'
 * *m-laB 'cheek/face'
 * *təkD 'chest'
 * *kaŋC 'chin'
 * *k-raA 'ear'
 * *kaiC 'excrement (1)'
 * *ʔikD 'excrement (2)'
 * *m-ʈaA 'eye'
 * *C-totD 'fart'
 * *ʈ-lepD 'fingernail'
 * *kokD 'foot'
 * *C-dəŋA 'forehead'
 * *m-diA 'gall bladder'
 * *motD 'hair'
 * *m-səmA 'hair (head)'
 * *mjaA 'hand'
 * *kraiB 'head'
 * *hlulC 'heart'
 * *C-siC 'intestine'
 * *C-kuB 'knee'
 * *C-kaA 'leg'
 * *təpD 'liver'
 * *ʔaɯC 'meat'
 * *ŋuŋA 'mouth (1)'
 * *mulB 'mouth (2)'
 * *m-ɖaɯA 'navel'
 * *C-joA 'neck'
 * *hŋətD 'nose (1)'
 * *teŋC 'nose (2)'
 * *hŋwuB 'pus'
 * *t-ruB 'saliva'
 * *m-baB 'shoulder'
 * *kwauB 'skin (1)'
 * *taA 'skin (2)'
 * *boŋA 'skin (3)'
 * *hloŋA 'stomach'
 * *ʒaC 'tear (n.)'
 * *ɣwjənA 'tendon (1)'
 * *ŋenA 'tendon (2)'
 * *t-roŋA 'throat (1)'
 * *kɣeA 'throat (2)'
 * *l-maA 'tongue'
 * *l-pənA 'tooth (1)'
 * *C-tʃuŋA 'tooth (2)'
 * *t-luC 'waist'


 * Animals
 * *motD 'ant'
 * *C-meA 'bear'
 * *reA 'bee'
 * *ɳokD 'bird'
 * *kwaiA 'buffalo'
 * *kuC 'cat (wild)'
 * *kiA 'chicken'
 * *niA 'cow'
 * *d-ratD 'crab'
 * *ʔakD 'crow (n.)'
 * *ditD 'deer'
 * *x-maA 'dog'
 * *blaɯA 'duck (1)'
 * *kapD 'duck (2)'
 * *ʈəmA 'egg'
 * *p-laA 'fish'
 * *x-mətD 'flea'
 * *meC 'goat'
 * *d-laŋC 'hawk'
 * *C-kuA 'horn'
 * *ŋjaC 'horse'
 * *C-ʈuA 'louse (head)'
 * *m-drəlA 'louse (body)'
 * *kʒətD 'maggot'
 * *taiC 'monkey (1)'
 * *krokD 'monkey (2)'
 * *m-luA 'monkey (gibbon)'
 * *dʒaŋA 'mosquito'
 * *x-muA 'pig'
 * *hlaiC 'rat'
 * *tʃuiA 'shellfish'
 * *C-tʃotD 'tail'
 * *ŋaA 'snake'
 * *(k-)diA 'tiger'
 * *gwjaA 'wing'


 * Plants
 * *tokD 'banana'
 * *m-teC 'beans'
 * *m-pwaB 'bran'
 * *kaA 'cogon grass'
 * *m-tiŋA 'cucumber'
 * *C-kənA 'ear of grain'
 * *hŋaC 'flower (1)'
 * *balA 'flower (2)'
 * *C-makD 'fruit'
 * *C-suiB 'garlic (1)'
 * *kɣaA 'garlic (2)'
 * *kɣiŋA 'ginger'
 * *t-laɯA 'grass/tobacco'
 * *ɖiŋA 'leaf'
 * *l-kaA 'mushroom'
 * *caA 'paddy (grain)'
 * *m-pləŋA 'peach'
 * *mla(ɯ)C 'rice (cooked)'
 * *salA 'rice (husked)'
 * *kʒaŋA 'rice'
 * *tsaŋA 'root'
 * *peA 'seed'
 * *l-ŋaA 'sesame'
 * *ʒaŋA 'sorghum'
 * *p-ɣakD 'taro (1)'
 * *rwauC 'taro (2)'
 * *ŋjanC 'thorn'
 * *tiA 'tree'
 * *ɖ-loŋA 'vegetable (1)'
 * *ʔopD 'vegetable (2)'
 * *məlA 'yam'


 * Nature
 * *m-tuB1 'ash'
 * *laB 'coal'
 * *mukD 'cloud/fog'
 * *luB 'earth'
 * *ʔutD 'earth (soil/mud)'
 * *naA 'field (wet)'
 * *zaC 'field (dry)'
 * *puiA 'fire'
 * *suiA 'firewood'
 * *l-meA 'frost'
 * *tsepD 'hail'
 * *kjəlC 'iron'
 * *m-ɖjanA 'moon (1)'
 * *(C-)tjanA 'moon (2)'
 * *dʐuA 'mountain'
 * *monA 'rain'
 * *jəlA 'rain'
 * *kronA 'road'
 * *t-laB 'rock (1)'
 * *ʔuŋA 'rock (2)'
 * *p-raA 'rock (3)'
 * *hŋaiA 'sand'
 * *praɯB 'silver (1)'
 * *ŋjənA 'silver (2)'
 * *m-kwənA 'smoke'
 * *ɳuiA 'snow'
 * *d-luŋA 'star'
 * *t-laŋA 'sunlight'
 * *(l-)wənA 'sun'
 * *ʔuŋC 'water'
 * *gwjənA 'wind'


 * Material culture
 * *kwanA 'ax'
 * *daA 'boat'
 * *dzaɯB/C 'chopsticks'
 * *C-ʃeA 'comb'
 * *trauC 'den/nest'
 * *x-ŋoA 'door'
 * *d-luŋA 'drum'
 * *t-lopD 'hat (bamboo)'
 * *kranA 'house'
 * *kwliA 'ladder (1)'
 * *kɣuŋA 'ladder (2)'
 * *pluA 'liquor (1)'
 * *C-kaC 'liquor (2)'
 * *t-laɯA 'medicine'
 * *druA 'mortar'
 * *ŋlotD 'needle'
 * *tsakD 'pestle'
 * *m-tʂuA 'pillar'
 * *hɲeA 'pillow'
 * *C-ʃakD 'rope'
 * *ɲoA 'salt'
 * *gwaŋA 'sieve'
 * *ʔenC 'skirt'
 * *ʒunB 'thread'
 * *mɣaiA 'village'


 * Kinship and pronouns
 * *taiA 'brother (elder)'
 * *ʒaɯB 'brother (younger)'
 * *lakD 'child'
 * *baA 'father'
 * *paB1 'father'
 * *m-liB 'female-in-law'
 * *klalA 'grandchild'
 * *m-pauB 'grandfather'
 * *jaC 'grandmother'
 * *kuA 'I (1)'
 * *ʔeA 'I (2)'
 * *C-paɯC 'male/husband'
 * *seA 'male/husband'
 * *dʒuC 'male-in-law'
 * *maiC 'mother'
 * *n(ʒ)iA 'name'
 * *bɣuŋC 'orphan'
 * *piC 'sister (elder)'
 * *ʔonC 'sister (younger)'
 * *ŋunA 'spirit'
 * *r-maŋA 'spirit'
 * *ʒanA 'strength'
 * *t-ɣuA 'we'
 * *ʔ-nauA/C 'who'
 * *məA/B 'you'


 * Adjectives
 * *kəmA 'bitter'
 * *hl/dəmA 'black'
 * *ʔaŋC 'bright'
 * *ŋəlC 'deaf'
 * *(h)ləkD 'deep'
 * *r-meA 'drunk'
 * *kʒaB 'dry'
 * *k-liA 'far'
 * *(m-)ɳəlA 'fat'
 * *m-tikD 'full'
 * *ʔaiA 'good'
 * *kʒəlA 'heavy'
 * *piŋC 'hot'
 * *dokD 'itchy'
 * *prenA 'lazy'
 * *kʒaC 'light (not heavy)'
 * *riC 'long'
 * *ʔiB 'many'
 * *d-laC 'near'
 * *malA 'new'
 * *kuB 'old (1)'
 * *kjaC/B 'old (2)'
 * *(k-)ɖepD 'raw'
 * *ŋ(w)aB 'real'
 * *hŋwuB 'ripe'
 * *roŋB 'rotten'
 * *ʔ-ɳəŋB 'salty'
 * *tʃiB 'satiated'
 * *ɖjelC/B 'shallow'
 * *hɲanC 'short (not long 1)'
 * *tiC 'short (not long 2)'
 * *taB/C 'short (not tall)'
 * *gjaɯC 'skinny'
 * *bwlatD 'sour'
 * *ʔetD 'small'
 * *muB 'smelly'
 * *tjelC 'sweet'
 * *k-ɣwaŋA 'tall'
 * *C-naA 'thick'
 * *ɣwəC 'thin'
 * *tuC 'warm (1)'
 * *ʔunB 'warm (2)'
 * *rəkD 'wet'
 * *r-ʔukD 'white'
 * *C-ŋilC 'yellow'


 * Verbs
 * *p-laA 'afraid'
 * *pluŋC 'alive'
 * *tsiC 'ask'
 * *m-plauB 'bark (v.)'
 * *ʔapD 'bathe'
 * *ʈaiB 'bite'
 * *rəmC 'bite'
 * *tsolA 'buy'
 * *paC 'carry on back (1)'
 * *m-blikD 'carry on back (2)'
 * *s-leB 'choose'
 * *kləpD 'close eye (1)'
 * *nəpD 'close eye (2)'
 * *(C-)maA 'come'
 * *m-duŋA 'come (return)'
 * *ɖəŋA 'crow (v.)'
 * *teC 'cut (1)'
 * *hrənC 'cut (2)'
 * *caɯC 'descend (1)'
 * *d-loŋA 'descend (2)'
 * *pɣonA 'die'
 * *duA 'do'
 * *l-pənA 'dream'
 * *hromC 'drink'
 * *m-ʈakD 'dry in sun'
 * *kanA 'eat'
 * *tokD 'fall'
 * *t-luiA 'flow'
 * *dəpD 'forget'
 * *nakD 'give'
 * *pwənB 'get (1)'
 * *m-toB 'get (2)'
 * *ɣwaC 'go'
 * *kəmC 'hatch'
 * *ʔənA 'have'
 * *dʒəkD 'hear'
 * *komA 'hold in mouth (1)'
 * *ʔomA 'hold in mouth (2)'
 * *p-ɣonA 'kill'
 * *soA 'know'
 * *k-soA 'laugh'
 * *limC 'lick'
 * *(h)ŋwaiA/B 'love'
 * *təmC 'plant (v.)'
 * *betD 'pluck'
 * *(ʔ)jəŋA/C 'rest'
 * *ʔiB 'scold (1)'
 * *kənC 'scold (2)'
 * *hɲanB 'scold (3)'
 * *kaiA 'see'
 * *tiC 'see (look)'
 * *s-ɣwiA 'sell'
 * *səlB 'shake/shiver'
 * *d-riC 'sick'
 * *ŋuB 'sleep (1)'
 * *ʔuB 'sleep (2)'
 * *muB 'smell'
 * *pɣaB 'split (1)'
 * *deB 'split (2)'
 * *lumC 'steal'
 * *tsuC 'steam (v.)'
 * *d-lwal C/A 'swallow (v.)'
 * *klutD 'take off'
 * *tʂunA 'teach'
 * *hŋa(ɯ)A 'wait'
 * *C-pwiA 'walk'
 * *leC 'wear'
 * *ɲitD 'weep'


 * Space, time, and deictics
 * *ljuA 'above'
 * *lonA 'back/behind'
 * *dəŋC 'back/behind'
 * *kunA 'before/front'
 * *ɲunB/C 'below'
 * *(h)wənA 'day'
 * *t-luŋC 'inside'
 * *mjaŋB 'left'
 * *m-ɖjanA 'month'
 * *riC 'outside'
 * *(x-)mitD 'right'
 * *ʔ-ɲaC/B 'that'
 * *ʔ-niC/B 'this'
 * *m-(p)ɣiŋA 'year'


 * Numerals
 * *tʂəmC 'one'
 * *saA 'two'
 * *tuA 'three'
 * *pəA 'four'
 * *r-maA 'five'
 * *x-nəmA 'six'
 * *t-ruA 'seven'
 * *m-ruA 'eight'
 * *s-ɣwaB 'nine'
 * *pwlotD 'ten'
 * *kjənA 'hundred'