User:Aellengray/Educational inequality

Educational inequality is the unequal distribution of academic resources, including but not limited to; school funding, qualified and experienced teachers, books, and technologies to socially excluded communities. These communities tend to be historically disadvantaged and oppressed. More times than not, individuals belonging to these marginalized groups are also denied access to the schools with abundant resources. Inequality leads to major differences in the educational success or efficiency of these individuals and ultimately suppresses social and economic mobility. See Statistic sections for more information.

Measuring educational efficacy varies by country and even provinces/states within the country. Generally, grades, GPA scores, test scores, dropout rates, college entrance statistics, and college completion rates are used to measure educational success. These are measures of an individual's academic performance ability. When determining what should be measured in terms of the educational success of an individual, many scholars and academics suggest that GPA, test scores and other measures of performance ability are not the only useful tools in determining efficacy. In addition to academic performance, attainment of learning objectives, acquisition of desired skills and competencies, satisfaction, persistence, and post-college performance should all be measured and accounted for when determining the educational success of individuals. Scholars argue that academic achievement is only the direct result of attaining learning objectives and acquiring desired skills and competencies. To accurately measure educational efficacy, it is imperative to separate academic achievement because it captures only a student's performance ability and not necessarily their learning or ability to effectively use what they have learned.

Much of educational inequality is attributed to economic disparities that often falls along racial lines and much modern conversation about educational equity conflates the two, showing how they are pee from residential location and, more recently, language. Educational inequality between white students and minority students continues to perpetuate social and economic inequality.

Throughout the world, there have been continuous attempts to reform education at all levels. With different causes that are deeply rooted in history, society, and culture, this inequality is difficult to eradicate. Although difficult, education is vital to society's movement forward. It promotes "citizenship, identity, equality of opportunity and social inclusion, social cohesion as well as economic growth and employment" and for these reasons, equality is widely promoted. The recognition of global educational inequality has led to the adoption of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 4 which promotes inclusive and equitable quality education for all.

Unequal educational outcomes are attributed to several variables, including family of origin, gender, and social class. Achievement, earnings, health status, and political participation also contribute to educational inequality within the United States and other countries.

Family background
In Harvard's "Civil Rights Project", Lee and Orfield identify family background as the most influential factor in student achievement. A correlation exists between the academic success of parents with the academic success of their children. Only 11% of children from the bottom fifth earn a college degree while 80% of the top fifth earn one. Linked with resources, white students tend to have more educated parents than students from minority families. This translates to a home-life that is more supportive of educational success. This often leads to them receiving more at-home help, have more books in their home, attend more libraries, and engage in more intellectually intensive conversations. Children, then, enter school at different levels. Poor students are behind in verbal memory, vocabulary, math, and reading achievement, and have more behavior problems. This leads to their placement in different level classes that tracks them. These courses almost always demand less from their students, creating a group that is conditioned to lack educational drive. These courses are generally non-college bound and are taught by less qualified teachers.

Also, family background influences cultural knowledge and perceptions. Middle class knowledge of norms and customs allows students with this background to better navigate the school system. Parents from this class and above also have social networks that prove to be more beneficial than networks based in lower classes. These connections may help students gain access to the right schools, activities, etc. Additionally, children from poorer families, who are often minorities, come from families that distrust institutions. America's history of racism and discrimination has created a perceived and/or existent ceiling on opportunities for many poor and minority citizens. This ceiling muffles academic inspirations and muffles growth.

The recent and drastic increase of Latino immigrants has created another major factor in educational inequality. As more and more students come from families where English is not spoken at home, they often struggle with overcoming a language barrier in addition to simply learning subjects. They more frequently lack assistance at home because it is common for the parents to not understand the work that is in English.

Furthermore, research reveals the summer months as a crucial time for the educational development of children. Students from disadvantaged families experience greater losses in skills during summer vacation. Students from lower socioeconomic classes come disproportionately from single-parent homes and dangerous neighborhoods. 15% of white children are raised in single-parent homes and 10% of Asian children are. 27% of Latinos are raised in single-parent homes and 54% of African American children are. Fewer resources, less parental attention, and more stress all influence the performance of children in school.

Gender
Throughout the world, educational achievement varies by gender. The exact relationship differs across cultural and national contexts.

History In the United States
Before 1771, women were expected to be homemakers, raising the children, cleaning the home, and cooking for their families (Monaghan, 1988). During this time, women did not hold jobs and their education was limited to reading and sewing (Monaghan, 1988). Despite their inability to learn, women were often viewed as a burden to society without basic arithmetic and writing skills (Monaghan, 1988). In the 1800s, common schools were created to better educate the public and to periodically act as a daycare (Reef, 2009). It was believed that women would better serve their spouses and educate their children if they too possessed a more in-depth education (Reef, 2009).

In 1833, Oberlin College became the first form of higher education to include women in a coeducation-based classroom (Reef, 2009). Eight years later in 1941, three women graduated with Bachelor of Arts degrees (Reef, 2009), making them the first women to receive a higher education. In 1855, The University of Iowa became the first college to admit men and women on an equal basis (Iowa). As women’s interest and desire to learn grew, women began to question the equality of the educational system. In July 1848, a gathering of men and women formed to discuss equality for women, known as The Seneca Falls Convention (Osborn, 2000). Of the many spoken topics at The Seneca Falls Convention, equality and access of education was among them and is believed to have fueled the feminist movement (Osborn, 2000).

During the Civil War in the 1860s, women were becoming a necessity to replace men in their fields as the men were shipped off to war (Reef, 2009). To become successful teachers and workers, women had to be educated. The Civil War offered a unique opportunity to women as it was the first time they could demonstrate their ability to fill and succeed in roles that had been previously only offered to men. This trend continued as the United States entered both World War I, July 1914-November 1918, and World War II, September 1939-September 1945, and women assumed new roles of war production and agriculture (“Women in WWI,” 2020).

For the next 27 years women would continue to fight for their equality in education. Throughout the 20th century, women were required to take home economics and literature classes while men could study mathematics and science (Galles, 2004). Physical education for women was limited to cheerleading and calisthenics while men could participate in a variety of team sports (Galles, 2004). For the women with comparable educations and resumes as men, they were often prohibited from entering male dominated fields such as law and medicine (Galles, 2004). It wasn’t until June 23, 1972, that congress passed Title IX stating, “No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subject to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance” (“Equal access to education,” 2012).

Obstacles
Obstacles preventing females' ability to receive a quality education include traditional attitudes towards gender roles, poverty, geographical isolation, gender-based violence, and early marriage and pregnancy. Throughout the world, there is an estimated 7 million more girls than boys out of school. This "girls gap" is concentrated in several countries including Somalia, Afghanistan, Togo, the Central African Republic and Democratic Republic of the Congo. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, girls are outnumbered two to one.

Socialized gender roles affect females' access to education. For example, in Nigeria, children are socialized into their specific gender roles as soon as their parents know their gender. Men are the preferred gender and are encouraged to engage in computer and scientific learning while women learn domestic skills. These gender roles are deep-rooted within the state, however, with the increase of westernized education within Nigeria, there has been a recent increase in women having the ability to receive an equal education. There is still much to be changed, though. Nigeria still needs policies that encourage educational attainment for men and women based on merit, rather than gender.

Male disadvantage
In 51 countries, girls are enrolled at higher rates than boys. Particularly in Latin America, the difference is attributed to the prominence of gangs and violence attracting male youth. The gangs pull the males in, distracting them from school and causing them to drop out.

In some countries, female high school and graduation rates are higher than for males. In the United States for example, 33% more bachelor's degrees were conferred on females than males in 2010–2011. This gap is projected to increase to 37% by 2021–2022 and is over 50% for masters and associate degrees. Dropout rates for males have also increased over the years in all racial groups, especially in African Americans. They have exceeded the number of high schools and college dropout rates than any other racial ethnicity for the past 30 years. A majority of the research found that males were primarily the most "left behind" in education because of higher graduation dropout rates, lower test scores, and failing grades. They found that as males get older, primarily from ages 9 to 17, they are less likely to be labeled "proficient" in reading and mathematics than girls were.

In general, males arrive in kindergarten much less ready and prepared for schooling than females. This creates a gap that continually increases over time into middle and high school. Nationally, there are 113 boys in 9th grade for every 100 girls, and among African American males, there are 123 boys for every 100 girls. States have discovered that 9th grade has become one of the biggest drops out years. Whitmire and Bailey continued their research and looked at the potential for any gender gap change when males and females were faced with the decision of potentially going to college. Females were more likely to go to college and receive bachelor's degrees than males were. From 1971 to about 1981, women were the less fortunate and had lower reported numbers of bachelor's degrees. However, since 1981, males have been at a larger disadvantage and the gap between males and females keeps increasing.

Boys are more likely to be disciplined than girls, and are also more likely to be classified as learning disabled. Males of color, especially African American males, experience a high rate of disciplinary actions and suspensions. In 2012, one in five African American males received an out of school suspension.

Comparisons: Male vs. Female
"The gap separating men and women in the job market remains wide in many countries, whether in the North or the South. With marginal variables between most countries, women have a lower employment rate, are unemployed longer, are paid less, and have less secure jobs." "Young women, particularly suffer double discrimination. First for being young, in the difficult phase of transition between training and working life, in an age group that has, on an average, twice the jobless rate or older workers and are at the mercy of employers who exploit them under the pretext of enabling them to acquire professional experience. Secondly, they are discriminated against for being women and are more likely to be offered low paying or low-status jobs." "Discrimination is still very much in evidence and education and training policies especially targeting young women are needed to restore a balance." "Although young women are increasingly choosing typically 'male' professions, they remain over-represented in traditionally female jobs, such as secretaries, nurses, and underrepresented in jobs with responsibility and the professions."

In early grades, boys and girls perform equally in mathematics and science, but boys score higher on advanced mathematics assessments such as the SAT college entrance examination. Girls are also less likely to participate in class discussions and more likely to be silent in the classroom. Some believe that females have a way of thinking and learning that is different than males. Belenky and colleagues (1986) conducted research that found that there was an inconsistency between the kind of knowledge appealing to women and the kind of knowledge being taught in most educational institutions. Another researcher, Gilligan (1982), found that the knowledge appealing to females was caring, interconnection, and sensitivity to the needs of others, while males found separation and individualism appealing. Females are more field-dependent, or group-oriented than males, which could explain why they may experience problems in schools that primarily teach using an individualistic learning environment. As Teresa Rees finds, the variance of women in mathematics and science fields can be explained by the lack of attention paid to the gender dimension in science.

Regarding gender differences in academic performance, Buchmann, DiPrete, and McDaniel claim that gender-based accomplishments on standardized tests show the continuation of the “growing male advantage in mathematics scores and growing female advantage in reading scores as they move through school”. Ceci, Williams and Barnett’s research about women’s underrepresentation in science reinforces this claim by saying that women experience “stereotype threat [which] impedes working memory” and as a result receive lower grades in standardized or mathematics tests. Nontheless, Buchmann, DiPrete and McDaniel claim that the decline of traditional gender roles, alongside the positive changes in the labor market that now allow women to get “better-paid positions in occupational sectors” may be the cause for a general incline in women’s educational attainment.

Males get worse grades than females do regardless of year or country examined in most subjects. In the U.S. Women are more likely to have earned a bachelor's degree than men by the age of 29. Female students graduate high school at a higher rate than male students. In the U.S. in 2003, 72 percent of female students graduated, compared with 65 percent of male students. The gender gap in graduation rates is particularly large for minority students. Men are under-represented among both graduate students and those who successfully complete masters and doctoral degrees in the U.S. Causes include boys having worse self-regulation skills than girls and being more sensitive to school-quality and home environment than girls. Boys perceiving education as feminine and lacking educated male role-models also contributes to males being less likely to complete college. In the U.S., male students perform worse on reading tests and read less than their female counterparts in part because males are more physically active, more aggressive, less compliant and because school reading curricula do not match their interests. Teacher Bias in grading accounts for 21% of the male deficit in grades. The male disadvantage in education is independent of inequality in social and economic participation.

United States only
Race and ethnics have played a major role in the inequalities of the American education system.

"Since its inception, public education in the United States has been beset with questions of which racial or ethnic group should be granted access to schooling."

During the early 18th century in most states, African-American students and Mexican American students were barred from attending schools with White Students. This was due to the post effects of the court case Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) where it was decided that educational facilities were allowed to segregate white students from students of color as long as the educational facilities were considered equal. Educational facilities did not follow the federal mandate, in a study taken from 1890 to 1950 of the Southern States per-pupil expenditures (1950s dollars) on instruction varied from Whites to Blacks. On average White students received 17–70 percent more educational expenditures than their Black counterparts. The first Federal legal challenge of these unequal segregated educational systems would occur in California Mendez v. Westminster in 1947 followed by Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. The decision of Brown v. Board of Education would lead to the desegregation of schools by federal law, but the years of lower education, segregation of household salaries between whites and people of color, and racial wealth gaps would leave people of color at a disadvantage to seek proper equal education for generations to come.

Differences of academic skills in children of the different race start at an early age, according to National Assessment of Educational Progress there is a remaining gap showing Black and Latino children being able to demonstrate cognitive proficiency compared to their White counterparts. In the data, 89 percent of White children presented the ability to understand written and spoken words while only 79 and 78 percent of Black and Latino children were able to comprehend written and spoken words the trend would continue into ages 4–6. Experts believe that the racial differences in academic achievement fall under three major categories: genetic, cultural, and structural. For example, in the 1980s minorities experienced a cultural phenomenon called "fear of acting White", minorities would shun and ridicule those in their social groups who had shown a higher intelligence than others. Shown in a graph comparing popularity to grade point average among Blacks, Latinos, and Whites built based on data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health popularity of White students increased as their grades increased, for Black and Latino student's popularity would drop as grades would rise. Race and ethnics will continue to play a major role in the disbursement of education through the American public school system, through diversity placement programs such as SEO and MLT, grants and social and cultural changes the education gap has slowly been closing between Whites and minorities in more recent years.

In the United States
The Immigrant paradox states that immigrants, who are disadvantaged by inequality, may use their disadvantages as a source of motivation. A study from New York showed that children of immigrant descent outperformed their native student counterparts. The paradox explains that the gratefulness of immigrant children allows them to enjoy academic advantages that may not have been accessible at one time. This in turn allows for more effort and better outcomes from these students. This was also evident in the National Education Longitudinal Study which showed that immigrant children many times outperformed on math and science tests. Grace Keo reported that “evidence of the immigrant advantage was stronger from Asian immigrant families than for youth from Latin American”, which may cause some inequality in itself. This may vary depending on differences between pre and post-migration conditions.

In 2010, researchers from Brown University published research on immigrants. Some of their conclusions were that first-generation immigrant children show lower levels of delinquency and bad behaviors than second or third-generation children and that first-generation immigrant children often start behind American-born children in school, but they catch up quickly and have high rates of learning growth.

Latino migration
In the United States, Latinos are the largest growing population. As of July 1, 2016, Latinos make up 17.8 percent of the U.S. population, making them the largest minority. People from Latin America migrate to the United States due to their inability to obtain stability, whether it is financial stability or refugee. Their homeland is either dealing with an economic crisis or is involved in a war. The United States capitalizes on the migration of Latin American migrants. With the disadvantage of their legal status, American businesses employ them and pay them an extremely low wage. As of 2013, 87% of undocumented men and 57% undocumented women were a part of the U.S. economy. Diaspora plays a role in Latinos migrating to the United States. Diaspora is the dispersion of any group from their original homeland. New York City holds a substantial quota of the Latino population. More than 2.4 million Latinos inhabit New York City, its largest Latino population being Puerto Ricans followed by Dominicans. A large number of Latinos contributes to the statistic of at least four million of the United States born children having one immigrant parent. Children of immigrant origin are the fastest growing population in the United States. One in every four children come from immigrant families. Many Latino communities are constructed around immigrant origins in which play a big part in society. The growth in children of immigrant parents does not go unaware, in a way society and the government accepts it. For example, many undocumented/immigrants can file taxes, children who attend college can provide parents information to obtain financial aid, parent(s) may be eligible for government help through the child, etc. Yet, the lack of knowledge regarding post-secondary education financial help increases the gap of Latino children to restrain from obtaining higher education.

Education
In New York City, Mayor De Balsio has implemented 3-K for All, which every child can attend pre-school at the age of three, free of charge. Although children's education is free from K-12 grade, many children with immigrant parents do not take advantage of all the primary education benefits. Children who come from a household that contains at least one immigrant parent, are less likely to attend childhood or preschool programs.

College preparation
The preparation of college access to children born in America from immigrant parents pertaining to Latino communities is a complex process. The beginning of the junior year through senior year in high school consists of preparation for college research and application process. For government help towards college tuition such as Financial Aid and Taps, parents or guardian's personal information is needed, this is where doubt and anticipation unravels. The majority of immigrant parents/guardians do not have most of the qualifications required for the application. The focus is to portray the way immigrants and their American born children work around the education system to attain a college education. Due to the influx of the Latino population, there amount of Latino high school students graduates has increased as well. Latino students are mainly represented in two-year rather than four-year institutions. This can occur for two reasons: the cost reduction of attending a two-year institution or its close proximity to home. Young teens with a desire to obtain a higher education clash with some limitations due to parent's/guardian's personal information. Many children lack public assistance due to lack of English proficiency of parents which is difficult to fill out forms or applications or simply due to the parent's fear of giving personal information that could identify their status, the same concept applies to Federal Student Aid. Federal Student Aid comes from the federal government in which helps a student pay for educational expenses of college in three possible formats, grant, work-study, and loan. One step of the Federal Aid application requires one or both parent/guardian personal information as well as financial information. This may limit the continuance of the application due to the fear of providing personal information. The chances of young teens entering college reduce when personal information from parents are not given. Many young teens with immigrant parents are part of the minority group in which income is not sufficient to pay college tuition or repay loans with interest. The concept of college as highly expensive makes Latino students less likely to attend a four-year institution or even attend postsecondary education. Approximately 50% of Latinos received financial aid in 2003–2004, but they are still the minority who received the lowest average of the federal awards. In addition, loans are not typically granted to them.

Standardized tests
In addition to finance scarcity, standardized tests are required when applying to a four-year post educational institution. In the United States, the two examinations that are normally taken are the SATs and ACTs. Latino students do generally take the exam, but from 2011 to 2015, there has been a 50% increase in the number of Latino students taking the ACTs. As for the SATs, in 2017, 24% of the test takers were identified with Latino/Hispanic. Out of that percentage, only 31 percent met the college-readiness benchmark for both portions of the test (ERW and Math).

Rural and inner-city education
Inequalities in rural and inner-city education are large scales systemic inequalities between differing spatial education systems. The study of these differences, especially within rural areas, is relatively new and distinct from the study of educational inequality which focuses on individuals within an educational system.

Rural and inner-city students in the United States are under-performing academically compared to their suburban peers. Factors that influence this under-performance include funding, classroom environment, and the lessons taught. Low achievement rates can also be attributed, in part, to the schools themselves. Inner-city and rural students are more likely to live in low-income households and attend schools with fewer resources compared to suburban students. They have also shown to have a less favorable view of education which stems from the values held in their communities and families regarding school, work, and success.

When compared to suburban students, rural and inner-city students face similar achievement issues. Teacher-student interactions, the lessons taught, and knowledge about the surrounding community have shown to be important factors in helping offset the deficits faced in inner-city and urban schools. However, drop-out rates are still high within both communities, as a more substantial number of minority students, who often live in these areas, drop-out of high school. A study on inner-city, high school students showed that academic competency during freshman year has a positive impact on graduation rates, meaning that a students' early high school performance can be an indicator of how successful they will be in high school and if they will graduate. With the correct knowledge and understanding of the issues faced by these students, the deficits they face can be overcome.

Standardized tests
Achievement in the United States is often measured using standardized tests. Studies have shown that low performance on standardized tests can have a negative effect on the funding the school receives from the government, and low-income students have been shown to underperform on standardized tests at higher rates than their peers. A study looking at how low test performance affected schools, found that schools that perform below average and are in low income areas can face repercussions that affect school funding and resources. The study also found that the material taught to students is affected by test performance, as schools that have low test scores will often change their curriculum to teach to the test.

Spatial inequalities
When looking at spatial inequalities, it is important to look from multiple points of view. Some factors that are commonly included are demographics, community atmosphere, school and family resources, dropout rates, spending per student, and family traits such as parental education. Currently, these, and other dimensions, are broadly grouped into two categories, "available resources" and "investment decisions". They each have their own effects, but also may cause and reinforce each other's existence.

Spatial inequality refers to a lack of equity in quality resources that are available to individuals located in certain areas. Some of these resources include but are not limited to, reliable healthcare, access to job opportunities, affordable housing, and quality educational opportunities (Harris, 2010). In relation to education, spatial inequality is deficient [IL1] in availability of quality education opportunities based on neighborhoods (Owen, Candipan, 2019). The idea that spatial inequality has an influence on educational outcomes is not often disputed as theories around the correlations have been assumed (Wei, Simon, Baodong, Yongmei, 2018; Owen, Candipan, 2019). Though notions around the relationship between the two are often accepted studies specifically aimed at analyzing educational output from a spatial perspective are limited. (Wei, Simon, Baodong, Yongmei, 2018; Owens, Candipan 2019).

To approach things from a spatial point of view, a group of professors from the University of Utah apply geographical tools [IL2] to assess data about school performance in Salt Lake County. The group uses three geography-based regression models [IL3] used to analyze spatial impacts (Wei, Simon, Baodong, Yongmei, 2018). Regression analysis assesses the varying relationships between two or more variables (Wei, Simon, Baodong, Yongmei, 2018). Ordinary least squares (OLS), which estimates the relationship between one or more independent variables and a dependent variable were [IL4] applied. Spatial filtering regression[IL5], which is used to provide measurements of spatial links between values and variables was also utilized (Wei, Simon, Baodong, Yongmei, 2018). Lastly, geographically weighted regression (GWR[IL6] ), which considers how the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables vary geographically (Paez, Wheeler, 2009). Using these models, data from the Civil Rights Data Collection and Criterion Referenced Test (CRT) taken by the Unites States Department of Education in 2011 was evaluated (Wei, Simon, Baodong, Yongmei, 2018). The data provided test scores in English and mathematics from 210 schools in Salt Lake County, Utah. Data for the school locations was provided by the Utah Automated Geographic Reference center (Wei, Simon, Baodong, Yongmei, 2018). Results of their study showed considerable gaps in educational outputs [IL7] in certain regions of Salt Lake County. Cities with fewer whites and families with lower levels of education attainment have lower school performance (Wei, Simon, Baodong, Yongmei, 2018). The study ultimately determined that students from well-educated neighborhoods would perform substantially better (Wei, Simon, Baodong, Yongmei, 2018). The group does concede that there are some limitations to their model. For example, the model would be more rounded if it included details about the community environment and spatial terms. They also indicate the trimming down the data would provide a better idea of the factors that affect student outputs. (Wei, Simon, Baodong, Yongmei, 2018). Although the group was able find significant links between neighborhood and academic performance, they maintain that additional research should be directed toward the connections between academic performance and neighborhoods (Wei, Simon, Baodong, Yongmei, 2018).

A commonly accepted model (Wei, Simon, Baodong, Yongmei, 2018) and an influencer of policy [IL8] since the 1960s is the Education Production Function (EPF) (Hanushek, 2016). The EPF is based on a concept developed by economist called the Economic Theory of Production. In economics, the theory is designed to measure the overall production of a thing and which [IL9] inputs will produce the best outputs. (Harris, 2010). The introduction of the Education Production Function as a tool to measure educational output is attributed to the John Hopkins Sociologist James Coleman (Hanushek, 2001). Coleman led the 1966 Equality of Educational Opportunity Study sanctioned by U.S. Department of Education. The study was initiated in response to the 1964 Civil Rights Acts (Hanushek, 2016). The goal of “The Coleman Report” [IL10] was to provide details about the inequalities of educational opportunities in the educational systems in the country (Hanushek, 2016). As it has evolved over time, the goal of the Education Production Function has been to gather insight into the relationship between school inputs and student production/successes. The EPF provides quantifiable, tangible data [IL11] for measuring success in schools. With knowledge of the production function, it would be possible [IL12] to forecast what would happen if certain inputs were added or taken away (Collier, 1994). Some of the inputs used in the measurement include teacher education, teacher experience, class size, and community factors. (Hanushek, (2007), Eide, Showalter (2010)). The outputs or successes are measured in the form of test scores or employment in the cases of longitudinal studies (Harris, 2010; Wei, Simon, Baodong, Yongmei, 2018).

There are some that are criticize [IL13] only relying on data provided by the Education Production Function. Much of the criticism is around its inability to provide a holistic view in its measurements (Hanushek 2008). Because education is cumulative and occurs over the lifetime of an individual, some argue that centering a focus on formal schooling alone will result in missed opportunities to improve education prior to and after the start of schooling (Berhman, 2010). Additionally, it is suggested that the tools for studying educational inequality are changing. With a rise in the study of spatial dimension and the effects of neighborhood on education, some are calling for an increase in the usage geographical tools to assess outputs and inequalities in education (Wei, Simon, Baodong, Yongmei, 2018; Owens, Candipan, 2019).

School resources
In the same way, some regions of the world have so-called "brain drain", or the loss of wealthy, skilled, and educated individuals and their families to other countries through immigration, rural and inner-city regions of the United States experience brain drain to sub-urban regions. It has been shown that people become more likely to leave rural areas as their education level increases and less likely as they increase in age. Urban inner-city areas have been decentralizing since the 1950s, losing their human capital. This flight of human capital leaves only the poor and disadvantaged behind to contribute to school funding resulting in school systems that have very limited resources and financial difficulty.

The American public school system is one in which the amount of wealth in a school district shapes the quality of the school because schools are primarily funded by local property taxes. As the school system's funding decreases, they are forced to do more with less. This frequently results in decreased student faculty ratios and increased class sizes. Many schools are also forced to cut funding for the arts and enrichment programs which may be vital to academic success. Additionally, with decreased budgets, access to specialty and advanced classes for students who show high potential frequently decreases. A less obvious consequence of financial difficulty is difficulty in attracting new teachers and staff, especially those who are experienced.

Family resources
It has been shown that the socioeconomic status of the family has a large correlation with both the academic achievement and attainment of the student. "The income defecates for inner-city students is approximately $14,000 per year and $10,000 per year for the families of those living in the respective areas compared to the average income of families in suburban areas." Though, even within rural areas, there are differences in education and job choisis respective to demographics.

More well off sub-urban families can afford to spend money on their children's education in forms such as private schools, private tutoring, home lessons, and increased access to educational materials such as computers, books, educational toys, shows, and literature.

Sub-urban families are also frequently able to provide larger amounts of social capital to their kids, such as increased use of "proper English", exposure to plays and museums, and familiarity with music, dance, and other such programs. Even more, inner-city students are more likely to come from single-parent homes and rural students are more likely to have siblings than their suburban peers decreasing the amount of investment per child their families are able to afford. This notion is called resource dilution which posits that families have finite levels of resources, such as time, energy, and money. When sibship (amount of siblings) increases, resources for each child become diluted.

Investment decisions
Even if families and schools have the same resources available to them, that doesn't mean they will use them in the same way, or to the same extent. Often, people need proof that there is a connection between investing resources and academic success before they do it. Investment decisions are a function of both resources available and political processes, in regard to the distribution of public funds.

To the family
The investment a family puts into their child's education is largely reflective of the value the parent puts on education. The value placed on education is largely a combination of the parent's education level and the visual returns on education in the community the family lives in.

Sub-urban families tend to have parents with a much larger amount of education than families in rural and inner-city locations. This allows sub-urban parents to have personal experience with returns on education as well as familiarity with educational systems and processes. In addition, parents can invest and transmit their own cultural capital to their children by taking them to museums, enrolling them in extra-curriculars, or even having educational items in the house. In contrast, parents from rural and urban areas tend to have less education and little personal experience with their returns. The areas they live in also put very little value on education and reduce the incentive to gain it. This leads to families that could afford to invest greater resources in their children's education not to.

To the school
In the same way that a region or community that places little value on education may decrease a parent's willingness to invest in the education of their children, that community can reduce a school's willingness to allocate funding to provide advanced and in-depth educational opportunities for its students. School boards tend to invest resources in response to the demands of the community, and their communities' values have been changed due to the "brain drain" mentioned previously.

Gifted and talented education
There is a disproportionate percentage of middle and upper-class White students labeled as gifted and talented compared to lower-class, minority students. Similarly, Asian American students have been over-represented in gifted education programs. In 1992, African Americans were underrepresented in gifted education by 41%, Hispanic American students by 42%, and American Indians by 50%. Conversely, White students were over-represented in gifted education programs by 17% and Asian American minority students being labeled as gifted and talented, but research shows that there is a growing achievement gap between white students and students of color. There is also a growing gap between gifted students from low-income backgrounds and higher-income backgrounds. The reasons for the under-representation of African American, Hispanic American, and American Indian students in gifted and talented programs can be explained by (a) recruitment issues/screening and identifying; and (b) personnel issues. In regards to screening and identifying gifted and talented students, most states use a standardized achievement and aptitude test, which minority students have a history of performing poorly on. Arguments against standardized tests claim that they are culturally biased, favoring White students, require a certain mastery of the English language, and can lack cultural sensitivity in terms of format and presentation. In regards to personnel issues, forty-six states use teacher nominations, but many teachers are not trained in identifying or teaching gifted students. Teachers also tend to have lower expectations of minority students, even if they are identified as gifted. 45 states allow for parental nominations, but the nomination form is not sensitive to cultural differences and minority parents can have difficulty understanding the form. Forty-two states allow self-nomination, but minority students tend not to self nominate because of social-emotional variables like peer pressure or feeling isolated or rejected by peers. Additionally, some students are identified as gifted and talented simply because they have parents with the knowledge, political skills, and power to require schools to classify their child as gifted and talented. Therefore, providing their child with special instruction and enrichment. Schools should make sure that students from all social-class, cultural, language, and ethnic groups have an equal opportunity to participate in gifted and talented programs.

Recommendations
There are many recommendations for recruiting and retaining minority students in gifted and talented education programs. It is important that the instruments used to screen students are valid, reliable, and sensitive to students from diverse cultural backgrounds. There should also be multiple types (quantitative, qualitative, objective, subjective) and sources (teachers, parents, students) of information used in the screening process. Minority students who come from less rigorous schools and classrooms should be provided with support services and educational opportunities to help them be successful. An example would be classes that focus on study skills or time management skills. Teachers should attend professional development opportunities and be trained in teaching and working with minority students. More specifically, teachers should attend professional development that addresses the characteristics and behaviors of underrepresented gifted populations, awareness of cultural differences, children with multiple exceptionalities, developing positive peer culture in the classroom and school, and equitable and unbiased assessments. There should also be an increase in family involvement in the classroom and school, along with family involvement in the screening process. It is important to implement programs to keep students in school as they come of age and need to work so they can provide for their family. These programs should help students stay in school and provide a path to a career instead of having to go to work when they are old enough, which is major barrier students of low-income families face.

Special education
In addition to the unbalanced scale of gender disproportionality in formal education, students with "special needs" comprise yet another facet of educational inequality. Prior to the 1975 passing of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (currently known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)) approximately 2 million children with special needs were not receiving sufficient public education. Of those that were within the academic system, many were reduced to lower standards of teaching, isolated conditions, or even removal from school buildings altogether and relocated out of peer circulation. The passing of this bill effectively changed the lives of millions of special needs students, ensuring that they have free access to quality public education facilities and services. And while there are those that benefit from the turning of this academic tide, there are still many students (most of which are minorities with disabilities) that find themselves in times of learning hardship due to the unbalanced distribution of special education funding.

In 1998 1.5 million minority children were identified with special learning needs in the US, out of that 876,000 were African American or Native American. African American students were three times as likely to be labeled as special needs than that of Caucasians. Students who both are special education students and of a minority face unequal chances for quality education to meet their personal needs. Special education referrals are, in most cases in the hands of the general education teacher, this is subjective and because of differences, disabilities can be overlooked or unrecognized. Poorly trained teachers at minority schools, poor school relationships, and poor parent-to-teacher relationships play a role in this inequality. With these factors, minority students are at a disadvantage because they are not given the appropriate resources that would in turn benefit their educational needs.

US Department of Education data shows that in 2000–2001 at least 13 states exhibited more than 2.75% of African American students enrolled in public schools with the label of "mental retardation". At that time national averages of Caucasians labeled with the same moniker came in at 0.75%. During this period no Individual state rose over 2.32% of Caucasian students with special needs.

According to Tom Parrish, a senior research analyst with the American Institutes for Research, African American children are 2.88 times more likely to be labeled as "mentally retarded", and 1.92 times more likely to be labeled as emotionally disturbed than Caucasian children. This information was calculated by data gathered from the US Department of Education. It illustrates how even within a system that has progressed so much over the years, specifically due to industry recognition and public attention in forms such as government and private funding, aspects as archaic as race discrimination are still prevalent within these institutional walls.

Researchers Edward Fierros and James Conroy, in their study of district-level data regarding the issue of minority over-representation, have suggested that many states may be mistaken with their current projections and that disturbing minority-based trends may be hidden within the numbers. According to the Individuals with Disabilities Act students with special needs are entitled to facilities and support that cater to their individual needs, they should not be automatically isolated from their peers or from the benefits of general education. However, according to Fierros and Conroy, once minority children such as African Americans and Latinos are labeled as students with special needs they are far less likely than Caucasians to be placed in settings of inclusive learning and often receive less desirable treatment overall.

This problem of racial segregation amongst minority students with special needs is an ongoing battle in need of resolution. While historically there has been no ironclad solution to righting the wrongs of racial prejudices, there are ways in which we can all individually begin the process of equality within our educational institutions. Organizations such as the US Department of Education provide resources that we as teachers, students, parents, and concerned individuals can utilize in order to better educate ourselves on the current issues and services regarding special needs education. One such resource is the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (OSERS) which provides links to currently debated topics, programs, initiatives, reports, and resources as well support services.

United States
The historical relationships in the United States between privileged and marginalized communities play a major role in the administering of unequal and inadequate education to these socially excluded communities. The belief that certain communities in the United States were inferior in comparison to others has allowed these disadvantages to foster into the great magnitude of educational inequality that we see apparent today.

For African Americans, deliberate systematic education oppression dates back to enslavement, more specifically in 1740. In 1740, North Carolina passed legislation that prohibited slave education. While the original legislature prohibited African Americans from being taught how to write, as other States adopted their own versions of the law, southern anti-literacy legislatures banned far more than just writing. Varying Southern laws prohibited African Americans from learning how to read, write, and assembling without the presence of slave owners. Many states as far as requiring free African Americans to leave in fear of them educating their enslaved brethren. By 1836, the public education of all African-Americans was strictly prohibited.

The enslavement of African Americans removed the access to education for generations. Once the legal abolishment of slavery was enacted, racial stigma remained. Social, economic, and political barriers held blacks in a position of subordination. Although legally African Americans had the ability to be learning how to read and write, they were often prohibited from attending schools with White students. This form of segregation is often referred to as de jure segregation. The schools that allowed African American students to attend often lacked financial support, thus providing inadequate educational skills for their students. Freedmen's schools existed but they focused on maintaining African Americans in servitude, not enriching academic prosperity. The United States then experienced legal separation in schools between Whites and Blacks. Schools were supposed to receive equal resources but there was an undoubted inequality. It was not until 1968 that Black students in the South had universal secondary education. Research reveals that there was a shrinking of inequality between racial groups from 1970–1988, but since then the gap has grown again.

Latinos and American Indians experienced similar educational repression in the past, which effects are evident now. Latinos have been systematically shut out of educational opportunities at all levels. Evidence suggests that Latinos have experienced this educational repression in the United States as far back as 1848. Despite the fact that it is illegal to not accept students based on their race, religion, or ethnicity, in the Southwest of the United States Latinos were often segregated through the deliberate practice of school and public officials. This form of segregation is referred to as de facto segregation. American Indians experienced the enforcement of missionary schools that emphasized the assimilation into white culture and society. Even after "successful" assimilation, those American Indians experienced discrimination in white society and often rejected by their tribe. It created a group that could not truly benefit even if they gained an equal education.

American universities are separated into various classes, with a few institutions, such as the Ivy League schools, much more exclusive than the others. Among these exclusive institutions, educational inequality is extreme, with only 6% and 3% of their students coming from the bottom two income quintiles.

Resources
Access to resources plays an important role in educational inequality. In addition to the resources from the family mentioned earlier, access to proper nutrition and health care influences the cognitive development of children. Children who come from poor families experience this inequality, which puts them at a disadvantage from the start. Not only important are resources students may or may not receive from family, but schools themselves vary greatly in the resources they give their students. On December 2, 2011, the U.S. Department of Education released that school districts are unevenly distributing funds, which are disproportionately underfunding low-income students. This is holding back money from the schools that are in great need. High poverty schools have less-qualified teachers with a much higher turnover rate. In every subject area, students in high poverty schools are more likely than other students to be taught by teachers without even a minor in their subject matter. Better resources allows for the reduction of classroom size, which research has proven improves test scores. It also increases the number of after school and summer programs—these are very beneficial to poor children because it not only combats the increased loss of skill over the summer but keeps them out of unsafe neighborhoods and combats the drop-out rate. There is also a difference in the classes offered to students, specifically advanced mathematics and science courses. In 2012, Algebra II was offered to 82% of the schools (in diverse districts) serving the fewest Hispanic and African American students, while only 65% of the schools serving the most African American and Hispanic students offered students the same course. Physics was offered to 66% of the schools serving the fewest Hispanic and African American students, compared to 40% serving the most. Calculus was offered to 55% of the schools serving the fewest Hispanic and African American students, compared to 29% serving the most.

This lack of resources is directly linked to ethnicity and race. Black and Latino's students are three times more likely than whites to be in high poverty schools and twelve times as likely to be in schools that are predominantly poor. Also, in schools that are composed of 90% or above of minorities, only one-half of the teachers are certified in the subjects they teach. As the number of white students increases in a school, funding tends to increase as well. Teachers in elementary schools serving the most Hispanic and African-American students are paid on average $2250 less per year than their colleagues in the same district working at schools serving the fewest Hispanic and African American Students. From the family resources side, 10% of white children are raised in poverty, while 37% of Latino children are and 42% of African American children are. Research indicates that when resources are equal, Black students are more likely to continue their education into college than their white counterparts.

State conflicts
Within fragile states, children may be subject to inadequate education. The poor educational quality within these states is believed to be a result of four main challenges. These challenges include coordination gaps between the governmental actors, the policy maker's low priority on educational policy, limited financing, and lack of educational quality.

Measurement
In the last decade, tests have been administered throughout the world to gather information about students, the schools they attend, and their educational achievements. These tests include the Organization for Economic and Co-Operational Development's Program of International Student Assessment and the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement's Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. To calculate the different test parameters in each country and calculate a standard score, the scores of these tests are put through Item Response Theory models. Once standardized, analysts can begin looking at education through the lens of achievement rather than looking at attainment. Through looking at achievement, the analysts can objectively examine educational inequality throughout the globe.

Social mobility
Social mobility refers to the movement in class status from one generation to another. It is related to the "rags to riches" notion that anyone, with hard work and determination, has the ability to move upward no matter what background they come from. Contrary to that notion, however, sociologists and economists have concluded that, although exceptions are heard of, social mobility has remained stagnant and even decreased over the past thirty years. From 1979 through 2007 the wage income for lower and middle-class citizens has risen by less than 17 percent while the one percent has grown by approximately 156 percent sharply contrasting the "postwar period up through the 1970s when income growth was broadly shared". Some of the decreases in social mobility may be explained by the stratified educational system. Research has shown that since 1973, men and women with at least a college degree have seen an increase in hourly wages, while the wages for those with less than a college degree have remained stagnant or have decreased during the same period of time. Since the educational system forces low-income families to place their children into less-than-ideal school systems, those children are typically not presented with the same opportunities and educational motivation as are students from well-off families, resulting in patterns of repeated intergenerational educational choices for parent and child, also known as decreased or stagnant social mobility.

Remedies
There are a variety of efforts by countries to assist in increasing the availability of quality education for all children.

Assessment
Based on input from more than 1,700 individuals in 118 countries, UNESCO and the Center for Universal Education at the Brookings Institution have co-convened the Learning Metrics Task Force. The task force aims to shift the focus from access to access plus learning. They discovered through assessment, the learning and progress of students in individual countries can be measured. Through the testing, governments can assess the quality of their education programs, refine the areas that need improvement, and ultimately increase their student's success.

Education for All Act
The Education For All act or EFA is a global commitment to provide quality basic education for all children, youth, and adults. In 2000, 164 governments pledged to achieve education for all at the World Education Forum. There are six decided-upon goals designed to reach the goal of Education for All by 2015. The entities working together to achieve these goals include governments, multilateral and development agencies, civil society, and the private sector. UNESCO is responsible for coordinating the partnerships. Although progress has been made, some countries are providing more support than others. Also, there is a need to strengthen overall political commitment as well as strengthening the needed resources.

Global Partnership for Education
Global Partnership for Education or GPE functions to create a global effort to reduce educational inequality with a focus on the poorest countries. GPE is the only international effort with its particular focus on supporting countries' efforts to educate their youth from primary through secondary education. The main goals of the partnership include providing educational access to each child, ensuring each child masters basic numeracy and literacy skills, increasing the ability for governments to provide quality education for all, and providing a safe space for all children to learn in. They are a partnership of donor and developing countries but the developing countries shape their own educational strategy based upon their personal priorities. When constructing these priorities, GPE serves to support and facilitate access to financial and technical resources. Successes of GPE include helping nearly 22 million children get to school, equipping 52,600 classrooms, and training 300,000 teachers.

Multicultural education
Global Partnership for Education or GPE functions to create a global effort to reduce educational inequality with a focus on the poorest countries. GPE is the only international effort with its particular focus on supporting countries' efforts to educate their youth from primary through secondary education. The main goals of the partnership include providing educational access to each child, ensuring each child masters basic numeracy and literacy skills, increasing the ability for governments to provide quality education for all, and providing a safe space for all children to learn in. They are a partnership of donor and developing countries but the developing countries shape their own educational strategy based upon their personal priorities. When constructing these priorities, GPE serves to support and facilitate access to financial and technical resources. Successes of GPE include helping nearly 22 million children get to school, equipping 52,600 classrooms, and training 300,000 teachers.

Massive online classes
There is a growing shift away from traditional higher education institutions to massive open online courses (MOOC). These classes are run through content sharing, videos, online forums, and exams. The MOOCs are free which allows for many more students to take part in the classes, however, the programs are created by global north countries, therefore inhibiting individuals in the global south from creating their own innovations.

Policy implications
With the knowledge that early educational intervention programs, such as extended childcare during preschool years, can significantly prepare low-income students for educational and life successes, comes a certain degree of responsibility. One policy change that seems necessary to make is that quality child care is available to every child in the United States at an affordable rate. This has been scientifically proven to push students into college, and thus increase social mobility. The ultimate end result of such a reality would be that the widely stratified educational system that exists in the U.S. today would begin to equalize so that every child born, regardless of socioeconomic status, would have the same opportunity to succeed. Many European countries are already exercising such successful educational systems.

Albania
Household income in Albania is very low. Many families are unable to provide a college education for their kids, with the money they make. Albania is one of the poorest countries in Europe with a large population of people under the age of 25. This population of students needs a path to higher education. Nothing is being done for all the young adults who are smart enough to go to college but cannot afford to.

Bangladesh
The Bangladesh education system includes more than 100,000 schools run by public, private, NGO, and religious providers. The schools are overseen by a national ministry. Their system is centralized and overseen by the sub-districts also known as Upazilas. During the past two decades, the system expanded through new national policies and pro-poor spending. The gross enrollment rate in the poorest quintile of upazilas is 101 percent. Also, the poorest quintile spending per child was 30 percent higher than the wealthiest quintile.

Educational inequalities continue despite the increased spending. They do not have consistent learning outcomes across the upazilas. In almost 2/3 of upazilas, the dropout rate is over 30 percent. They have difficulty acquiring quality teachers and 97 percent of preprimary and primary students are in overcrowded classrooms.

Inequality in higher education
Africa, in general, has suffered from decreased spending on higher education programs. As a result, they are unable to obtain moderate to high enrollment and there is minimal research output.

Within South Africa, there are numerous factors that affect the quality of tertiary education. The country inherited class, race, and gender inequality in the social, political, and economic spheres during the Apartheid. The 1994 constitution emphasizes higher education as useful for human resource development and of great importance to any economic and social transitions. However, they are still fighting to overcome the colonialism and racism in intellectual spaces.

Funding from the government has a major stake in the educational quality received. As a result of declining government support, the average class size in South Africa is growing. The increased class size limits student-teacher interactions, therefore further hindering students with low problem solving and critical thinking skills. In an article by Meenal Shrivastava and Sanjiv Shrivastava, the argument is made that in large class sizes "have ramifications for developing countries where higher education where higher education is a core element in the economic and societal development". These ramifications are shown to include lower student performance and information retention.

United Kingdom
Evidence from the British birth cohort studies has illustrated the powerful influence of family socioeconomic background on children's educational attainment. These differences emerge early in childhood, and continue to grow throughout the school years.

Sudan Republic
The earliest educational system of Sudan was established by the British during the first half of the 20th century. The government of Sudan recognizes education as a right for every citizen and guarantees access to free basic education, The educational structure of the Republic of Sudan consists of the pre-primary, primary, secondary, and higher education, The Sudanese education system includes more than 3.646 schools run by public, private, and religious providers, the schools are overseen by the High Ministry of Education. However, Sudan's simmering wars and a lack of awareness about the importance of education and chronic under-development all contribute to the poor schooling of girls in Sudan. In addition, cultural pressures and the traditional views of the role of women mean fewer girls attend and remain in school. The inability to pay fees even though school is free according to government policy is a major reason; some poor families can't afford the stationery and clothes. The government can't provide for all the students' needs because of the economic situation and poverty. However the government has raised their awareness of educating females, and they have created universities only for girls,. The first and most popular one is Al Ahfad University for Women, located in Omdurman, created in 1907 by Sheikh Babikr Bedri. Now the percentage of educated females is increasing; the last survey estimates that 60.8% of females in Sudan can read and write.

United States
See selected issues and criticisms under Higher education in the United States.

Property tax dilemma
In the United States, schools are funded by local property taxes. Because of this, the more affluent a neighborhood, the higher the funding for that school district. Although this situation seems favorable, the problem emerges when the equation is reversed. In neighborhoods inhabited by predominantly working and lower-class families, properties are less expensive, and so property taxes are much lower than those in affluent neighborhoods. Consequently, funding for the school districts to which working and lower-class children are assigned is also significantly lower than the funding for the school districts to which children of affluent families are assigned. Thus, students in working and lower class schools do not receive the same quality of education and access to resources as do students from affluent families. The reality of the situation is that the distribution of resources for schools is based on the socioeconomic status of the parents of the students. As a result, the U.S. educational system significantly aids in widening the gap between the rich and the poor. This gap has increased, rather than decreased, over the past few decades due in part to a lack of social mobility.

International comparisons
Compared to other nations, the United States is among some of the highest spenders on education per student behind only Switzerland and Norway. The per-pupil spending has even increased in recent years but the academic achievement of students has remained stagnant. The Swedish educational system is one such system that attempts to equalize students and make sure every child has an equal chance to learn. One way that Sweden is accomplishing these goals is by making sure every child can go to daycare affordably. Of the total cost of childcare, parents pay no more than 18% for their child; the remaining 82% is paid for by various government agencies and municipalities. In 2002, a "maximum-fee" system was introduced in Sweden that states that costs for childcare may be no greater than 3% of one's income for the first child, 2% for the second child, 1% for the third child, and free of charge for the fourth child in pre-school. 97.5% of children age 1–5 attend these public daycare centers. Also, a new law was recently introduced that states that all four- and five-year-old children can attend daycare for free. Since practically all students, no matter what their socioeconomic background, attend the same daycare centers, equalization alongside educational development begins early and in the public sphere. Furthermore, parental leave consists of 12 months paid leave (80% of wage) whereas one month is awarded solely to the father in the form of "use it or lose it". This results in the privilege and affordability of staying home and bonding with one's child for the first year of life. Due to this affordability, less than 200 children in the entire country of Sweden under the age of 1 are placed in child care.

Stratification in the educational system is further diminished by providing all Swedish citizens and legal residents with the option of choosing which school they want their children to be placed in, regardless of what neighborhood they reside in or what property taxes they pay. Additionally, the Swedish government not only provides its citizens with a free college education but also with an actual monthly allowance for attending school and college.

Together, these privileges allow for all Swedish children to have access to the same resources. A similar system can be found in France, where free, full-day child care centers known as "écoles maternelles" enroll close to 100% of French children ages 3–5 years old. In Denmark, children from birth to age six are enrolled in childcare programs that are available at one-fifth of the total costs, where the rest is covered by public funding.