User:Dennis Brown/Articles/American automobile industry in the 1960s

The preceding decade saw the American automobile grow larger than the auto industries of the rest of the world combined. It has employed 1 of 6 Americans, directly or indirectly, by 1960. The American industry began losing market share during the 1960s, due to inefficiencies in manufacturing, changing consumer tastes and pressure from imports which experienced a 10 fold increase in market share from 1955 to 1960; from 1% to 10% of US sales. By 1970, imports comprised 15% of the cars and trucks sold in America.

While the 1950s were revolutionary, with new factories, new innovations being introduced yearly, the 1960s were more evolutionary. Many automakers used the same basic engine blocks, choosing to bore and stroke them to produce more power. Suspensions and mechanical designs were modified and refined more than reinvented. Better alloys and manufacturing techniques allowed automakers to get more out of the old designs. Demand for smaller, more efficient cars and pressure from imports forced American builders to create the then new compact class cars, many of which came with smaller, more fuel efficient 6 cylinder engines yet often those same cars were purchased with optional, gas guzzling, high performance engines that made upwards of 400hp or more.

The 1960s marks the peak of the muscle car era. With few safety or environmental regulations, horsepower kept radically increasing. This changed with the passage of Clean Air Act of 1970 as well as other laws regulating safety and emissions. Horsepower dropped, while at the same time the 1973 oil crisis causing gas shortages and price spikes, so the demand for larger cars with gas guzzling, high performance engines dropped off precipitously. The muscle car era was over.

Notable introductions
In the previous decade, the United States had built the largest auto industry in the world, larger than the auto industry of the rest of the world combined. By 1960, one in six jobs in America were directly or indirectly in the auto industry. Most of the smaller independent car manufacturers had either merged or gone out of business.

In automotive parlance, the Big Three refers to what used to be the three largest automobile manufacturers in the United States; General Motors, Ford and Chrysler. American Motors Corporation (AMC) was also a significant American automaker during the decade but never reached the size of any of the three giant conglomerates. Meanwhile, the major manufacturers introduce a large number of new models, many of which are listed here, to appeal to the everchanging tastes of consumers.

General Motors
GM introduced a number new models in the 1960s, several of which are still in production. While Pontiac and Oldsmobile are now retired marques, during the 1960s these brands were the 3rd and 5th best selling brands respectively. Overall, the decade was a good decade for General Motors.

Pontiac
The Pontiac Tempest was introduced in 1960, and offered in a trim upgrade as the Pontiac LeMans in 1962. The performance edition was named the GTO and was was introduced in 1964. All shared the same frame and body panel design. The Tempest was originally engineered to compete with the smaller, imported cars such as the Volkswagen Beetle, as American car buying habits were changing, with a shift towards smaller, more fuel efficient autos. The Tempest originally came with Pontiac's four cylinder engine, making 110-140hp, although about 2004 models were produced with 4 barrel carburators, boosting output to 155hp and 220ft. lb of torque.

By far, the most popular variant was the GTO. Nicknamed "the goat" by many enthusiasts, it was an upgraded version of the Tempest. At the time, Car and Driver magazine declared the GTO was "the best American car we have ever driven, and probably one of the five or six best cars in the world for the enthusiast driver". It boasted 348hp from its stock 389 cubic inch (6.4L) engine and sold for around $3400, a sum Car and Driver called "a bargain" (emphasis in original)

Pontiac Grand Prix debuted 1962 as a "leaner look" than their Bonneville, which had grown substantially in size over the last generation. Pontiac used very little chrome trim and instead opted for a more elegant look for the new model. Like the GTO, it had the option for the race ready Super Duty powertrain. The 1962 "Super Duty" model featured a 421cid (6.9L) engine that produced 405hp. Five years later in 1967, a 428cid (7.0L) was optional that produced as much as 376hp (depending on option configuration). The Grand Prix remained in continuous production from 1962 to 2008.

The Firebird was introduced in 1967 and remained in continuous production until 2002. The first generation spanned from 1967-69 and shared the same basic Coke bottle styling and F body as the Chevrolet Camaro. The entry level 230 CID engines were subsequently enlarged for 1968 to 250 cubic inches(4.1 liters), the base version developing an increased 175 hp using a one-barrel carburetor, and the high-output Sprint version the same 215 hp with a four-barrel carburetor. Also for the 1968 model, the 326 CID engine was replaced by the Pontiac 350 CID V8, which actually displaced 354 CID, and produced 265 hp with a two-barrel carburetor. An HO version of the 350 CID with a revised cam was also offered starting in that year, which developed 320 hp. Power output of the other engines was increased marginally. The Pontiac Trans Am package was a special option for the Firebird in 1969, and would not become a stand alone model until the following year.

The less popular Pontiac Ventura was a full sized car, produced for the 1960 and 1061 model year, after which was a trim option for the Pontiac Catalina, which it had shared the B platform with. The name was reused as a stand alone model in the 1970s for a smaller vehicle.

The Pontiac 2+2, was a short lived, full size automobile, built on the B-body chassis. It debuted for the 1964 model year as a trim-only option for the Pontiac Catalina, with special door panels, bucket seats with a center console, and exterior badging. Pontiac marketed the 2+2 as the "big brother" to the popular Pontiac GTO. It was discontinued after the 1967 model year.

The Pontiac Executive was a limited production, full size model that was produced from 1967-70, based on the Catalina. Both used the GM B platform. It was a replacement for the Pontiac Star Chief, which was phased out after the 1966 model year.

Oldsmobile
The Oldsmobile division created the Oldsmobile Cutlass in 61, and similar Oldsmobile 442 in 64, Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme in 1866 and Oldsmobile Hurst/Olds in 68. (same body for all)

Oldsmobile Toronado in 1966

Buick
Buick Wildcat in 1962

Buick Riviera in 1963

Buick Skylark reintroduced name in 1961

Chevrolet
The Corvair was introduced in 1960. Division General Motors manager Edward Cole authorized the rear engine, air cooled boxer powered Corvair as a way to compete with the up and coming Volkswagen, which had the same layout. It featured a 6 cylinder boxer style engine with 140 cubic inches and produced 80hp. It debuted as a four door sedan that featured independent rear suspension on a 108" wheelbase. It has two trim levels, and soon followed with two coupes, and then the Monza coupe with bucket seats.

First introduced in 1962, the Chevy II / Nova debuted after Chevrolet leaders realized the Corvair would not be as popular as the Ford Falcon. The Chevy II was their attempt at producing a compact car with a more traditional front engine/rear wheel layout. It utilized a unibody (monocoque) body with "Mono-Plate" single leaf springs in the rear suspension. Standard power plant was an inline 4 with 153CID (Chevrolet's first inline 4 cylinder since 1928), as well as an optional 194CID inline 6 cylinder engine. The 100 and 300 models were offered as sedans and station wagons, while the 400 "Nova" series had the 6 cylinder and the option of either a sporty hard top or convertible. While it did not outsell the Falcon, it did manage to secure orders for 326,607 in its first year, outselling the Corvair. Two years later, the Nova would see an optional V8 engine, followed in 1965 with both 250hp and 300hp V8 engines options.

1964 saw the introduction of the "intermediate" class of cars by Chevrolet, beginning with the Chevelle. This new mid-sized car was 16" shorter and 3.5" narrower than its full size siblings, with a 115" wheelbase. Unlike the compact cars, it featured coils springs on all wheels, and more powerful engine choices that included two different inline sixes, two different 283cid V8s, and later in the decade, two different 327CID V8s.  Seven different series were offered, included the base 300, the better equipped Malibu and the El Camino pickup.

The Caprice moniker was introduced as a $200 option package for the Impala in 1965, but by 1966 it bacame a stand alone model. Priced at the top tier of Chevrolet's models, it was an attempt to bridge the gap between their own Impala and offerings from Cadillac. Features such as padding steering wheel, sound deadening insulation and wood-grain interior were standard. It came standard with a 195hp 283cid v8, but featured the two new 427cid V8s (a bored out versions of the 396) as options, with either 390hp or 425hp.

The Camaro debuted in 67, Chevrolet's answer to the Ford Mustang. Based on the then soon to be 1968 Nova frame, it was classified as a pony car. Initially offered with your choice of two inline six and two 327cid V8 engines, it would soon be available with the 396 and the new 350. A new "Z18 package" that included a special purpose 302cid engine made it eligible for the Trans-Am Series. Production was only about half of the Mustang, but its introduction began a new phase of competition between Ford and Chevrolet. Model years include 1967–2002 and 2010–present.

Chevrolet Van in 1961 (some say 64)

Chevrolet K5 Blazer in 1969

During this decade, engines gained both in cubic inches and horsepower as a number of new engine sizes were introduced. The Chevrolet small-block engine was essentially the same, but offered different bores and strokes, increasing the overall power. The three major new engines include the 327cid in 62, 350cid in 67, and less popular 307cid in 68. New engines that utilized the Chevrolet Big-Block engine include the 427cid in 63 and 396cid in 65.

Ford
Engineered by Lee Iacocca starting in 1960, the Ford Mustang was initially released as a 1964½ year model. The chassis was initially based on the more utilitarian Ford Falcon chassis (which had been waning in popularity) but was smaller and lighter. Over the next decades, it would spawn a number of Ford Mustang variants. It went on sale April 17, 1964 and received 22,000 orders on its first day, sold a record breaking 418,812 units in its first year, and 500 owner's clubs were formed within three years. It came standard with a 170cid (2.8L) six cylinder that produced 101hp. Options included a new 289cid V8 that produced 271hp. With a base price of $2,368, it was considered very affordable.

Ford claims that the Mustang is the best selling sports car over the last 50 years. As of August 2018, over 10 million Mustang autos have been built and sold.

Ford Falcon in 1960, Ford LTD in 1965, Ford Bronco in 1966, Ford Transit in 1965 (really commercial, not sure that needs including),

Ford GT40, Cobras, etc.

The Ford Econoline is a compact van that was based on the Falcon chassis. It was introduced in 1961 as a way to compete with the Chevrolet Corvair Sportvan and Volkswagen Type 2. Later in the decade, it grew to a full sized van, shifting the engine under the new, small hood.

Ford Torino in 68 and similar Mercury Cougar and Mercury Montego in 68,

Mercury
Mercury Marauder was introduced for the 1963 model year. Originally the name for a big block Ford engine that used in Ford and Edsel vehicles, they became a stand-alone product and were produced from 1963-1965, 1969-70, then later in 2002-2004. The 1963 Super Marauder was an upgrade from the standard Marauder, and featured modest trime differences, but did sport a 406cid V8 engine that produced 385hp when equipped with the standard 4-barrel, and was available with either a 4-barrel carburetor or three 2-barrel carburetors. Some of these early models had very limited production, less than 1000 units. (pp 19-20 legendary ford book) A year later, the Marauder was powered by Ford "FE-Series" V8 engines, shared with the big Fords and the Thunderbird. A 390 cubic-inch Marauder V8 was standard, with a 427 cubic-inch Super Marauder V8 replacing a 406 V8 in 1964. The 427cid engine produced either 410hp (4-barrel) or 425hp (three 2-barrel). Along with 3-speed and 4-speed manual transmissions, a 3-speed "Merc-O-Matic" automatic transmission was offered.

Edsel
A marque owned by Ford, the brand ended with a whimper only three years after introduction. The Edsel was named after Henry Ford's son, Edsel Ford, and made its debut as a separate car division on September 4, 1957, for the 1958 model year. The front grill was said by critics to look like "an Oldsmobile sucking on a lemon". It ended up being a marketing blunder that not only cost Ford almost $250 million ($ million in 2020 dollars), but also turned the word "Edsel" into an enduring metaphor for failure. The car sold poorly even after redesigning the entire vehicle, and production for the final 1960 model year had ceased by November 1959. Final model year production was only 3,008 total cars built.

Chrysler
Chrysler introduced their Slant 6 engine in 1960, as well as several new small block V8 engines, including displacements of 273, 318 and 340 cubic inches. 383, 440 and 461 hemi as well (needs research)

Dodge
Super Bee in 68, Plymouth Barracuda in 64

Dodge Dart in 60,and Dodge Charger Daytona in 69, with the regular Charger since 66.

Plymouth
Plymouth Road Runner in 68

American Motors
In 1954, American Motors Corporation (AMC) was formed when Hudson merged with Nash-Kelvinator Corporation in a deal worth almost USD $200 million ($1.735 billion in 2013 dollars), the largest corporate merger in U.S. history at that time. Although AMC was moderately successful it was never sufficiently large to challenge any of the Big Three. While sales increased over 1962 numbers, they dropped from 4th to 6th place in sale in 1963. AMC struggled and their volume decreased as the decade progressed. They were eventually bought by Chrysler in 1987.

The Rambler Classic was introduced 1961, and won Motor Trend's Car of the Year award for 1963. It featured some then new and unique features, such as a double shift center console. AMC lagged the industry throughout the 1950s and 1960s, being last to introduce real competitors to the muscle car era, however the introduction of the AMC Javelin and AMC AMX for the 1968 model year breathed new life into the company.

As for the AMX, The first year offered an optional "Go Package" included a four-barrel carbureted 343 CID AMC V8, power front disc brakes, heavy-duty suspension, dual exhausts with chromed outlets, wide full-length body-side stripes, and E70x14 red-line tires mounted on chrome-plated "Magnum 500" styled road wheels. A 343 Go Pac Javelin could accelerate from 0 to 60 mph in 8 seconds, had a top speed approaching 120 mph, and could run a quarter-mile in 15.4 seconds. The largest engine in the first few months of 1968 production was described by auto author Rob de la Rive Box as "a 5.6 litre V-8 that delivered 284 SAE bhp, which made the car dangerously fast."

The Rambler Marlin was produced from 1965-1967 and advertised as a "personal luxury car". It was a fastback body design based on the Rambler Classic frame. The Marlin was also one of the first American automobiles with front disc brakes (four-piston design, by Bendix) as standard. It had drum brakes without servo assistance on the rear.

Checker
Checker Motors Corporation is often overlooked as they only produced automobiles for Checker Taxi, but they did produce a total of 9,058 vehicles during the decade all of which were built in their Kalamazoo, Michigan facility. The 1959-82 Checker A series sedans changed little in visual appearance during their run, although they were updated regularly in less visible ways. They stopped building automobiles in 1982 and focused on building parts for GM and Chrysler. In 2009 they filed for Chapter 11 protection in U.S. Bankruptcy Court.

Excalibur
Excalibur

Shelby
Shelby American

Studebaker
Studebaker

The Studebaker Avanti is a personal luxury coupe manufactured and marketed by Studebaker Corporation between June 1962 and December 1963. A halo car for the maker, it was marketed as "America's only four-passenger high-performance personal car." The Avanti name, tooling and plant space were sold to two South Bend, Indiana, Studebaker dealers, Nate Altman and Leo Newman, Considered ahead of it's time, it wasn't enough to save the struggling Studebaker, which has suffered from cash flow problems since the early 1950s.

Increased demand


While the Interstate Highway System was authorized in 1956 with passage of the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, most of the major construction didn't take place until the 1960s. The Interstate System is a network of freeways that forms a part of the National Highway System of the United States. This facilitated the migration from the city to the suburbs, increasing the need for even more automobiles for the new commuters.

By 1960, one-third of Americans lived in the suburbs. Eleven of the United States's twelve largest cities recorded a declining population during the decade, with Los Angeles being the sole exception. By 1970, 83 percent of all U.S. population growth was happening in the suburbs, accessible only by highways, and by car. Economist Richard Porter commented that "The automobile made suburbia possible, and the suburbs made the automobile essential."

For the decade, production averaged 7,612,604 units per year (not counting the smallest manufacturers), a 20% gain over 1960. The decade ended with 8,701,809 units built and sold in 1969, a 43% increase over 1960. While year to year production varied, the trend was obvious: more people wanted more cars.

Production
In 1958, there were more than 67 million cars registered in the United States, more than twice the number at the start of that decade.. Two years later in 1960, that number had grown to almost 73 million. By 1970, that number had grown to 88,775,294 automobiles and 17,843,250 private and commerically owned trucks (not counting buses), for a total of 106,618,544, an increase of almost 50% in 10 years.

In 1960, there were 410.37 cars registered per 1000 residents in the United States, and by 1970, this number had grown to 545.35, a 33% per capita increase. During this same period, the number of households without an automobile dropped from 22% to about 17%. The number of persons with a driver's license rose from 87 million in 1960 to by 1970 to 112 million, an almost 29% increase. As the population grew, a larger percentage of people were driving and they owned more cars per household.

Production numbers for the major automobile manufacturers can vary some, depending on the source and the methods used for generating the numbers. this chart is taken from Classic Car Weekly. *

'' Manufacturers that never built at least 10,000 autos in at least one year during the decade (Checker, Edsel, Shelby, Avanti II, etc.) excluded from this list, so the totals represent totals of the large makers, not totals of the entire industry. Lincoln numbers include models built under the Continental brand. AMC and Rambler sales numbers are combined. Some of these may have been rounded by the source.''

Horsepower war
Pony car, Muscle car

Imports
In the 1950s, the American automotive industry dominated the world market, being larger than the auto industries of every other country combined. . In 1955, import cars accounted for only 1% of the total market, but by 1960 they made up 10% of the market, as Americans became interested in smaller, more fuel efficient and affordable cars such as those offered by Volvo, MG as well as then import leader Volkswagen. American builders fought back with their own versions of (then) compact cars, including the Chevrolet Corvair, Chrysler Valient and Ford executive Robert McNamara's pet project, the Ford Falcon, and later, their Mustang. By decades end, imports accounted for 15% of the cars sold in America, and continued to climb in the following decades. While much of Europe had rebuilt, American manufacturing was still a force to be reckoned with, and accounted for 48% of global sales during the 60s.

Cars in culture
While Europe moved to radial tires, Americans stuck with bias ply tires and the same suspensions that supported them. (move somewhere)

A 1969 Dodge Charger, called the General Lee was used in the television show The Dukes of Hazzard, spawning a following for the car itself and it's distinctive orange paint, stenciled "01" on the doors and Confederate battle flag painted on the top. The flag became more controversial with time.

It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World

The Love Bug

Civil rights
At the beginning of the decade, Blacks only comprised 16% of the workforce in the automotive industry, up only 1% from a decade before, even while Blacks outnumbered whites in Detroit. Unions had been fighting racism since World War II, unsuccessfully for the most part but by 1970, Black's represented about 20% of the workforce in the industry, a moderate gain.

Until the Civil Rights Act of 1964, automotive plants in the southern U.S. and elsewhere either segregated or simply shut blacks out of the hiring process. Activism didn't exactly turn the tide on racism in the industry, but incremental gains were realized, due in part to wildcat strikes.

The Equal Pay Act of 1963 mandated equal pay for women working in the same conditions yet decades later the full potential of that law hasn't been realized. Even decades later in 2018, women comprise only 26.1% of the manufacturing workforce, with Black women being only 6.2%. 21.1% of auto dealers and 9% of the automotive technicians are women. In the executive boardroom, women only occupy 8% of the position. It wasn't until 2014 that woman was named as CEO of a major manufacturer, when General Motors gave the position to Mary Barra. Progress has been slow, yet the foundation was laid for improvement during the 1960s.

Influential events

 * Vietnam war
 * National Emissions Standards Act

The state of Wisconsin introduced legislation in 1961 requiring seat belts to be fitted to the front outboard seat positions of cars. The first federal seat belt law took effect on January 1, 1968 requiring all vehicles (except buses) to be fitted with seat belts in all designated seating positions.

Enduring models
The Chevrolet Camaro and Ford Mustang are the most obvious examples of models that originated in the 1960s and have endured in the marketplace, with regular model updates. The Camero has been in contiuous production except for the model years 2003-2009; the Ford Mustang has remained in production each year since its introduction. Some other models were discontinued (sometimes more than once) only to have the model named reused later, including the Dodge Charger and Chevrolet Malibu.

Other models could not endure, as many brands simply went out of business or the brand was discontinued by the parent corporation. Defunct brands that existed in the 1960s include Oldsmobile (2004), Pontiac (2010), Plymouth (2001), Mercury (2011), Studebaker (ceased production in 1966, assets sold in 1967), American Motors (purchased by Chrysler in 1979, which discontinued all brands except Jeep, which AMC has purchased from Kaiser Jeep in 1969)