User:Grover cleveland/French orthography

Grapheme-to-phoneme correspondences
This section lists French letters and letter combinations, and how to pronounce them transliterated into the International Phonetic Alphabet, based on the accent of the Paris region. Other regions may have significantly different pronunciations. . The vowels of French are a, e, i, o, u, and y together with all their accented forms. The remaining letters are consonants.

Consonants
In general, a written consonant (or sequence of consonants) can be pronounced differently in three different cases:
 * where it is non-final (i.e. there is at least one vowel later in the word).
 * where it is final (i.e. it is either the last letter in the word or part of a sequence of consonants that ends the word).
 * where it is the last letter in the word, and the next word in the sentence or clause starts with a vowel or mute "h".  In this situation the final consonant that would otherwise be silent may be pronounced (sometimes in a manner different from its regular pronunciation).  This phenomenon is known as liaison (linkage).

Non-final

 * b, bb: . bout,, "end".  abbesse, , "abbess"
 * b before "s" or "t": .  absolu,, "absolute".
 * c before "e" "i" or "y": . ce,, "this".
 * c elsewhere: . car,, "for"/"because". Exception:  second, , "second" and its derivatives.
 * ç before "a", "o" or "u": . français,, "French".
 * cc before "e", "i" or "y": . accepter,, "to accept".
 * cc elsewhere: . accueil,, "welcome" (noun).
 * ch where derived from Greek: . chrétien,, "Christian".
 * ch elsewhere: . chaque,, "each".
 * cqu: . acquis,, "acquired".
 * cz initially: or .  czar,, "tsar".  czardas, , "czardas".  Found only in loanwords.
 * d, dd: . dans,, "in". addition, , "addition".
 * dj: . adjectif,, "adjective".
 * f, ff: . français,, "French". affaire, , "affair".
 * g before "e", "i" and "y": . arranger,, "to arrange".
 * g elsewhere: . goût,, "taste".
 * gg before "e", "i" and "y": . suggestion,, "suggestion".
 * gg elsewhere: .  aggravation,, "aggravation".
 * gn: . agneau,, "lamb".
 * h: always silent. hors,, "outside".
 * j: . joue,, "cheek".
 * k: . kilo,, "kilogram".
 * l: . le,, "the" (masc. sing.).
 * ll following "i": can be either  or . briller,, "to shine". ville, , "city".
 * ll elsewhere: . vallée,, "valley".
 * m before a vowel: . mou,, "soft".
 * m elsewhere: see section Vowels followed by non-prevocalic "m" or "n" below
 * n before a vowel: nous,, "we", "us".
 * n elsewhere: see section Vowels followed by non-prevocalic "m" or "n" below
 * p, pp: . premier,, "first".  supporter, , "to support".
 * ph: . philosophie,, "philosophy".
 * ps: . psychiatrie,, "psychiatry".
 * q: found non-finally only in the digraph qu.
 * qu: . quart,, "quarter".
 * r, rr: . roue,, "wheel".  arriver, , "to arrive".  Some speakers may use  or.
 * s between two vowels: . présenter,, "to present".
 * s elsewhere: . sous,, "under".
 * sc before "e", "i" or "y": . scientifique,, "scientist".  Exceptions:  fascisme,  as well as , "fascism" (and its derivatives).
 * sc elsewhere: . scolaire,, "educational".
 * sch where derived from Greek: .  eschatologie,, "eschatology".
 * sch elsewhere: . schwa,, "schwa".
 * ss: . embrasser,, "to kiss".
 * t, th, tt: . tout,, "all".  thé, , "tea".  battre, , "to beat".
 * tch . Only found in foreign loan words.  tchèque,, "Czech".
 * tion following "s": . bastion,, "bastion".
 * tion elsewhere: . action,, "action".  ''
 * tience: .  impatience,, "impatience".
 * v: . vous,, "you".
 * w: only found in foreign loanwords. Most commonly  but can be .  wagon,, "railroad car".  weekend, , "weekend".
 * x before vowels: either  or . examen,, "examination".  sexe, , "sex".
 * x before consonants: . export,, "export".
 * x in forms derived from the numbers deux ("two"), six ("six") and dix ("ten"): . deuxième,, "second".
 * z: .  zoo,, "zoo".

Final
This applies to any consonant that appears as the last letter or a word, or as part of a sequence of consonants that ends a word. French phonology has a high preference for open syllables, thus many consonants are silent when there is no later vowel in the word.
 * b not preceded by "m": . club,, "club".
 * b after "m": silent. plomb,, "lead".
 * c not preceded by "n": . mec,, "guy".  Exceptions:  silent in a few words such as tabac,.
 * c after "n": silent. blanc, .  Exceptions: zinc,, "zinc".  donc, , "therefore".
 * ct: . direct,, "direct".  Exceptions:  respect, , "respect" and aspect, , "aspect".
 * d: silent. pied,, "foot".  Exceptions:  loanwords such as baroud, , "combat".
 * f: . neuf,, "nine".
 * g not preceded by "n": . log,, "logarithm" (abbreviation).  Exception: the word bourg, , "town", also found in many place-names.
 * g after "n": silent. sang,, "blood".
 * gt: silent. doigt,, "finger".
 * h: silent, but may lengthen preceding vowel. bah,  (interjection).
 * j: not found finally
 * k: . bolchevik,, "Bolshevik".
 * l after a vowel followed by "i": . accueil,, "welcome".
 * l elsewhere: . réel,, "real".  Exception: fils, , "son".
 * m: see section Vowels followed by non-prevocalic "m" or "n" below.
 * n: see section Vowels followed by non-prevocalic "m" or "n" below
 * p: silent. trop,.
 * q: . cinq,, "five". Many proper names do, e.g. Vidocq.
 * r after "e": May be silent, or may be pronounced .  Always silent when an infinitive.  présenter,, "to present".  fer, , "iron".
 * r elsewhere: . or,, "gold".
 * s: silent.  temps,, "time".  Exceptions:  in fils, , "son" and ours, , "bear"; also in some proper names such as Francis,.
 * st: . Ouest,, "West".  Exception: est, , "is".
 * t: silent. petit,, "small".  Exception: huit, "eight" is pronounced  when it is the last word in a phrase, but  when the next word in the phrase begins with a consonant other than mute "h".
 * v: not found finally.
 * w: silent. bungalow,, "bungalow".
 * x: silent. jeux,, "games".  Exceptions:  six, "six" is pronounced  when it is the last word in a phrase, or when used as a noun, but  when the next word in the phrase begins with a  consonant.  dix, "ten" is similar.  Pronounced  in fax, , "fax".
 * z: silent. chez,, "at the house of".  Exceptions:  in some proper names such as Berlioz,.

Liaison
Liaison applies to a word that ends in a written consonant that would otherwise be silent, when the next word begins with a written vowel or mute "h" (see below), and the two words are part of the same thought. Although h is considered a consonant, an occurrence of "h" at the beginning of a word can be either "mute" or "aspirated": It is necessary to learn whether an initial appearance of h in any particular word is aspirated or mute. Note that, whether mute or aspirated, the pronunciation of h itself is always silent. Only liaisons used in regular spoken French are listed here: others may be made in formal contexts such as poetic recitation or song.
 * "Aspirated" h acts like a consonant for purposes of liaison
 * "Mute" h acts like a vowel for the purposes of liaison.
 * d: . quand il,, "when he".
 * f: Generally no liaison but sometimes as in the common phrases neuf ans,, "nine years" and neuf heures, , "nine o'clock".
 * g: Generally no liaison but sometimes as in the phrase sang impur,, "impure blood", found in La Marseillaise.
 * n: . un homme,, "a man".
 * p: Sometimes . trop ancien,, "too old".
 * r: Occasionally . dernier acte,, "final act".
 * s: . les enfants,, "the children".
 * t: . c'est impossible,, "it's impossible".  Exceptions: The final "t" of the word et , "and", is never pronounced.   In liaison, huit, "eight" is pronounced [ɥit].
 * x: . jeux Olympiques,, "Olympic games".  Note that six ("six") and dix ("ten") have three possible pronunciations:  when the final word in a phrase or used as a noun,  when the next word in a phrase begins with a consonant, and  when the next word begins with a vowel or mute "h".  Thus il y en a dix, , "there are ten of them";  dix garçons, , "ten boys"; dix enfants, , "ten children".
 * z: . chez eux,, "at their house".

Vowels
For vowels followed by nonprevocalic "m" or "n": see the relevant section below.


 * à: . là,, "there".
 * â: . âme,, "soul".
 * a before a pronounced : . extase,, "ecstasy".
 * a elsewhere: . ami,, "friend".
 * ai when the last two letters in a word: .  gai,, "happy".
 * ai elsewhere: . aider,, "to help".  Exception:  in polysyllabic forms of the verb faire ("to do"): e.g. faisons, , "let's do".
 * au before "r": .  saurer,, "to smoke (fish, etc.)".
 * au elsewhere: . faux,, "false".
 * ay: . payer,, "to pay".
 * é: . beauté,, "beauty".
 * è: . père,, "father".
 * ê: . même,, "same".
 * e when the last letter in a word, and there is at least one other written vowel in the word: silent.  même,, "same".
 * e when the last letter in a word that has no other vowel: .  me,, "me".
 * e in the word que ("that"): ..
 * e followed by word-final s, in a word containing other written vowels: silent.  arbres,, "trees".
 * e followed by word-final s when the only vowel in the word: may be either  or .  ces,, "these".  ses, , "his/her (pl.)".
 * e followed by word-final t: .  muet,, "silent".  Exception:  in   et, , "and".
 * e followed by any other single silent word-final consonant: . payer,, "to pay".
 * e followed by a single pronounced word-final consonant (including a consonant pronounced in liaison): .  fer,, "iron"..
 * e when followed by a consonant-vowel sequence (where the consonant is not x): . tenir,, "to hold".
 * e when followed by any other sequence of two or more consonants: .  belle,, "beautiful" (fem.).
 * ei before a pronounced : . seize,, "sixteen.
 * ei elsewhere: .  veille,, "eve".
 * eu when the last pronounced sound in a word: .  bleu,, "blue".
 * eu when followed by a pronounced : . creuser,, "to dig".
 * eu elsewhere: .  neuf,, "nine".