User:MartinPoulter/Islamic metalwork

Islamic metalwork is one of the most important branches of Islamic decorative art, alongside ceramics, artistic glass, wood, rock crystal, ivory and textile weaving and knotting. Metalworkers fashioned everyday objects into high-quality works of art that could serve as status symbols for their owners. Islamic metalwork initially continued late antiquity and Sassanian traditions before developing its own forms, especially from the 12th century onwards.

History
The earliest Islamic metalware was found in Jordan and dates to the Umayyad period. It shows a strong Byzantine and Sasanian influence. Early production sites were in northern Iran and Khorasan, but above all in Herat and later in Mosul: the nisba designations al-Harawī ('from Herat') and al-Mausilī ('from Mosul') were often used by metal artists to mark their mastery.

Compared to the previous tradition, Islamic metalwork had a greater tendency towards abstraction and stylization and a flatter execution of reliefs. Geometric and vegetal patterns with loosening medallions took the place of the predominantly figurative decorations from the Sasanian period, but did not completely supplant them. Because the objects were often melted down in times of crisis, many forms of this art have been lost over the centuries. However, some high-quality metalwork made of gold and silver has been described in contemporary literature. Of particular art-historical value are the objects with precious metal inlays produced by damascening, which were mainly produced from the 12th to the 15th century.

Islamic metal art can be found in the form of ornately decorated water basins and water jugs, magic bowls, candlesticks, mosque lamp s, vessels for incense, chests for storing Quran manuscripts, filigree mechanical apparatus, especially astrolabes, jewellery, weapons, coins and also luxury crockery, although the latter tended to be frowned upon by Islamic tradition as excessive ostentation. Aquamaniles in the form of birds and griffins are among the rare examples of figurative Islamic art. Presumably, the craftsmen drew on experience that other masters in Sindh, West India and Kashmir had gathered in the production of brass Buddha statues.

Compared to ceramics, for example, metal works are often signed, which shows the appreciation for the artists and patrons of these objects. At the same time, unlike in calligraphic art and miniature painting, there are only a few biographies of the creators.

Islamic metal goods spread from their places of manufacture across regions and reached China, Russia and, via the Mediterranean region, Scandinavia as export goods and diplomatic gifts. In Venice in the early modern period, barter work in particular was often imitated and copied.

Materials and manufacturing processes
To decorate metal surfaces, Islamic craftsmen used punching, chasing, embossing, engraving and inlay. None of these were new techniques, but they became distinctive when combined with the conventions of Islamic decorative art. Punching (or "ringmatting") was used to highlight the principal motif of a design with circles or rings. Whereas repoussé (ornamental relief created by hammering) is common in other metalwork traditions, it is used in Islamic art for small details, and was common for gold and silver metalwork in Iran before the 13th century.

The starting materials were mostly bronze or brass. Both materials were called Sufr / صفر in medieval Arabic texts, which sometimes makes a clear assignment difficult. A high tin content gave the work a golden tone and made it easier to work with. The metals were often cast in wax models, which the artists melted away once the work was completed. Reusable wooden models later enabled repeated recasting and mass production. Clay models often served as templates. Stylistic innovations in metalwork were often transferred to other branches of Islamic art, and the chandelier technique of ceramics explicitly attempted to imitate the luster of metalwork.

The engineer al-Jazari, who worked in the 12th century, provided detailed information on the technology of serial casting and the exchange process in his writings. Silver and, more rarely, gold, copper and niello were used as precious metals for inlays, which often resulted in a multicolored effect. Metal objects made of zinc — called bidri wares — also came into fashion under the Mughal rulers in India from the 16th century.