User:Stevey7788/TB2

Below are lists of ethnic groups in China by linguistic classification. Ethnicities not on the official PRC list of 56 ethnic groups are italicized. Respective Pinyin transliterations and simplified Chinese characters are also given.

Verbs
Proto-Tibeto-Burman verbs would have resembled those of Written Tibetan. The verb paradigms below are from Written Tibetan. The affixes given in the tables below have also been reconstructed in Proto-Tibeto-Burman.

Written Tibetan intransitive verbs are relatively simple and have two forms (Matisoff 2003:131).

However, Written Tibetan transitive verbs are much more complicated. They can be split into four different classes, with the verb roots taking on various prefixes, circumfixes, and suffixes (Matisoff 2003:131).

Sound changes
Sino-Tibetan languages go through a series of four stages in which final stops and nasals gradually decay (Matisoff 2003:238-239).
 * 1) The six final stops and nasals, *-p, *-t, *-k, *-m, *-n, *-ŋ, are all intact. Written Tibetan, Lepcha, Kanauri, Garo, and Cantonese are currently in this stage.
 * 2) One or more final consonants have been reduced or dropped. In Jingpho and Nung, the velars (*-k) are replaced by glottal stops (-ʔ), while in other languages they are completely dropped. In Mandarin Chinese, all final stops are dropped, and *-m has been merged with *-n and *-ŋ.
 * 3) All finals stops become glottal stops or constrictions (such as creaky voices), and final nasals may be replaced by nasality in the preceding consonant. Languages currently in this stage include modern Burmese and Lahu.
 * 4) There are no glottal or nasal traces of former final consonants left in the syllables.

For example, the Proto-Tibeto-Burman word *myak (a simple monosyllable, meaning "eye," that actually occurs in Written Burmese) evolved into the disyllable *sya-myak. From *sya-myak, it could then turn into *səmyak (sesquisyllable) or *smyak (complex monosyllable). Either of these two forms could then be simplified to another monosyllable, where the cycle would be able to start again.

Language Change
4 principles of language change:


 * 1) Directionality of Change
 * 2) Commonality of Features
 * 3) Economy of Change
 * 4) Symmetry of System

Sino-Tibetan

 * Sinitic
 * Chinese/Han, Hàn, 汉
 * Chinese Muslim/Hui, Huí, 回
 * Tibeto-Burman
 * Bai, Bái, 白 (Sinitic?)
 * Tujia, Tǔjiā, 土家
 * Qiangic
 * Qiang, Qiāng, 羌
 * Northern Qiang
 * Southern Qiang
 * Pumi/Prinmi, Pǔmǐ, 普米
 * Baima, Báimǎ, 白马
 * Tangut, Xīxià, 西夏 (extinct)
 * Bodish
 * Tibetan, Zàng, 藏
 * Standard Tibetan
 * Central Tibetan
 * Amdo Tibetan
 * Khams Tibetan
 * Lhoba, Luòbā, 珞巴
 * Monpa/Monba, Ménbā, 门巴
 * Burmish
 * Achang, Āchāng, 阿昌
 * Loloish
 * Yi, Yí, 彝
 * Lisu, Lìsù, 傈僳
 * Lahu, Lāhù, 拉祜
 * Hani, Hāní, 哈尼
 * Jino, Jīnuò, 基诺
 * Nakhi/Naxi, Nàxī, 纳西 (?)
 * Jingpho-Nungish-Luish (?)
 * Jingpho, Jǐngpō, 景颇
 * Derung, Dúlóng, 独龙
 * Nu, Nù, 怒

Tai-Kadai
(Possibly the ancient Bǎiyuè 百越)
 * Kra/Kadai
 * Gelao, Gēlǎo, 仡佬
 * Mulao/Mulam, Mùlǎo, 仫佬
 * Kam-Sui
 * Dong, Dòng, 侗
 * Sui, Shuǐ 水
 * Maonan, Màonán, 毛南
 * Hlai/Li, Lí, 黎
 * Tai
 * Zhuang, Zhuàng, 壮
 * Buyei, Bùyī, 布依
 * Dai, Dǎi, 傣
 * Tai Lü language, Dǎilèyǔ, 傣仂语
 * Tai Nüa language, Déhóng Dǎiyǔ, 德宏傣语
 * Tai Dam language, Dǎinǎyǔ, 傣哪语; Dǎidānyǔ, 傣担语

Altaic

 * Turkic (Tūjué 突厥)
 * Uyghuric/Karluk
 * Uyghur, Wéiwúěr, 维吾尔
 * Uzbek, Wūzībiékè, 乌孜别克
 * Kipchak
 * Kazakh, Hāsàkè, 哈萨克
 * Kyrgyz, Kēěrkèzī, 柯尔克孜
 * Tatar, Tǎtǎěr, 塔塔尔
 * Oghuz
 * Salar, Sǎlá, 撒拉
 * Eastern
 * Western Yugur, Yùgù, 裕固
 * Äynu, Àinǔ, 艾努
 * Mongolic
 * Mongolian, Měnggǔ, 蒙古
 * Khitan, Qìdān, 契丹 (extinct)
 * Southeastern
 * Monguor, Tǔ [Zú], 土[族]
 * Eastern Yugur, Yùgù, 裕固
 * Dongxiang, Dōngxiāng, 东乡
 * Bonan, Bǎoān, 保安
 * Kangjia, Kāngjiā, 康家语
 * Tungusic
 * Southern
 * Manchu, Mǎn, 满
 * Jurchen, Nǚzhēn, 女真 (extinct)
 * Xibe, Xíbó, 锡伯
 * Nanai/Hezhen, Hèzhé, 赫哲
 * Northern
 * Evenki, Èwēnkè, 鄂温克
 * Oroqen, Èlúnchūn, 鄂伦春
 * Korean/Choson, Cháoxiǎn 朝鲜

Others
Hmong-Mien (Possibly the ancient Nánmán 南蛮)
 * Hmong/Miao, Miáo 苗
 * Mien/Yao, Yáo, 瑶
 * She, Shē, 畲

Austro-Asiatic
 * Palaung-Wa
 * Palaung/Blang, Bùlǎng, 布朗
 * De'ang, Déáng, 德昂
 * Wa/Va, Wǎ, 佤
 * Vietnamese/Kinh, Jīng, 京

Austronesian
 * Formosan languages, Gāoshān, 高山

Indo-European
 * Russian, Éluósī, 俄罗斯
 * Tajik, Tǎjíkè, 塔吉克

Mixed
 * Wutun, Wǔtún, 五屯 (Mongolian-Tibetan mixed language)
 * Macanese, Tǔshēngpú, 土生葡 (Portuguese creole)

Register splits

 * upper, odd, yin, voiceless
 * lower, even, yang, voiced

Tree
The following is a phylogenetic tree of language families and their corresponding SNP markers, or haplogroups, sourced mainly from Edmondson as well as Shi, et al.

Sino-Austronesian
French linguist and Sinologist Laurent Sagart groups the Austronesian languages in a recursive-like fashion. Sagart considers the Austronesian languages to be related to the Sino-Tibetan languages, and also groups the Tai-Kadai languages as more closely related to the Malayo-Polynesian languages.


 * Sino-Austronesian (Sino-Tibetan-Austronesian)
 * Tibeto-Burman ("Sino-Tibetan")
 * Austronesian
 * Luilang, Pazeh, Saisiat
 * Pituish
 * Atayalic (Thao, Favorlang, Taokas, Papora, Hoanya)
 * Enemish
 * Siraya
 * Walu-Siwaish
 * Tsouic (Paiwan, Rukai, Puyuma, Amis, Bunun)
 * Muish
 * Northeastern Formosan (Kavalan, etc.)
 * Daic or Kra-Dai (Tai-Kadai)
 * Malayo-Polynesian

Austro-Tai
While the Austronesian languages are generally disyllabic and atonal, the Tai-Kadai languages are usually monosyllabic and always tonal. This is because the structure of Tai-Kadai languages has been heavily influenced by Chinese and possibly Tibeto-Burman and Hmong-Mien languages due to prolonged contacts and interactions.

Even though the structures of Austronesian and Thai languages have diverged very much, many basic vocabulary words have not changed much. Usually, the Tai-Kadai word would have only the last syllable of its proto-form, although the Kra and Kam-Sui languages often still have disyllabic basic vocabulary words.

The table below lists Thai words with their respective Austronesian cognates (given by Tagalog, Ilocano language, and Malay, all of which are major lingua francas in Southeast Asia today). The words below can also found in Swadesh lists.

Tables
Unrecognized Taiwanese aboriginal tribes may include extinct tribes or tribes currently classified with other groups. There are also 25,943 Aborigines who are currently not classified in any group.

East Asian languages
In 2001, Stan Starosta proposed a new language family which he called "East Asian." Like Sagart, Starosta groups Chinese and the Austronesian languages together into one family. However, he also adds a Yangtzean branch that includes the Hmong-Mien and Austro-Asiatic languages and places it as a sister branch of Tibeto-Burman.


 * Proto-East Asian
 * Tibeto-Burman-Yangtzean
 * Tibeto-Burman
 * Sino-Bodic
 * Sinitic
 * Tangut-Bodish
 * Himalayo-Burman
 * Kamarupan
 * Southern Himalayo-Burman
 * Qiangic
 * Proto-Yangtzean
 * Hmong-Mien
 * Austro-Asiatic
 * Munda
 * Mon-Khmer
 * Austronesian
 * Formosan
 * Extra-Formosan
 * Kra-Dai
 * Malayo-Polynesian

Tai-Kadai
In 1988, Jerold Edmondson and David Solnit proposed the following classification, which they called "Kadai."

The Tai-Kadai classification below is given by Chamberlain.