User:SylviaStanley/sandbox

“Britain for Europe”

{{Infobox dot-com company | name = LivingDNA | logo = | company_type = Private
 * foundation  = 2016
 * location    = Frome, United Kingdom
 * founder     =  David Nicholson and Hannah Morden (Co-founders)
 * key people  = Dr. Martin Blythe small>(Principal Scientist) Mary Dy small>(Operations Manager)
 * industry    = Internet
 * products    = Family history website Genealogy software

Autosomal DNA test }}
 * num_employees   = over 100
 * url         = {{url|https://www.livingdna.com}}
 * registration = Yes
 * owner       = DNA Worldwide Group Ltd.
 * language    = {{Collapsible list
 * current_status = Active

LivingDNA
LivingDNA is an online genealogy platform with web, mobile, and software products and services that was first developed and popularised by the British company LivingDNA in 2016. Users of the platform can create family trees, upload and browse through photos, and search billions of global historical records, among other features. As of 2018, the service supports .. languages and has around .. million users worldwide. In January 2017 it was reported that LivingDNA has ...... on its website. The company is headquartered in Frome, United Kingdom

Egypt
Sudan was partially under the same government as Egypt at intermittent periods from the time of the pharaohs until 660 BC. In 1821, the army of the Ottoman Viceroy (until 1914, Egypt was nominally part of the Ottoman Empire) Muhammad Ali Pasha, conquered Sudan. Sudan was administered by Governors-General under the Egyptian leader (Sultan or Khediv). In 1879, in view of the immense foreign debt of Pasha's Egyptian government the Great Powers to forced his abdication and replacement by his son Tewfik Pasha. In 1881 a Sudanese rebellion under the Mahdi broke out. The Egyptian leader asked the British General Gordon to pull out Egyptian troops and civilians and abandon Sudan. However Gordon was killed and the Egyptian rule of Sudan ended in 1885.

Britain
Sir Samuel Baker, an Englishman, was regional governor of the South of the Sudan from 1869-1873. He was responsible for eradicating the slave traffic and extending the borders of Sudan further south. A Scotsman, General Gordon was Governor-General of Equatorial Sudan from 1874 to 1876 and Governor General of Sudan from 1877-1880. By 1882 the corrupt and incompetent government of the Khediv Tewfik Pasha had made Egypt virtually bankrupt. The Egyptian army, unpaid, untrained and undisciplined mutinied in the 'Urabi Revolt. Tewfik appealed for British assistance. The British navy bombarded Alexandria and British forces subdued the revolt and, although officially the authority of Tewfik had been restored, Britain took over the administration and reconstruction of both Egypt and Sudan.

Mahdist Sudan
The Mahdist regime imposed a brutal form of traditional Sharia Islamic laws during its government from 1885-1989. By one estimate the population of Sudan collapsed from eight to three million due to war, famine, disease and persecution. In 1898 the Mahdist army was defeated at Atbara and Omdurman by an Anglo-Egyptian army under the British General Kitchener and the Mahdist regime came to an end in 1898.

Central government
In 1899 Britain and Egypt signed the Anglo-Egyptian agreement which laid down the constitution of Sudan as a condominium. Sudan was to be an autonomous independent administered by a governor-general appointed by Egypt on the recommendation of the British government. The Governor General was the supreme military and civil commander of Sudan. There was to be power sharing between Egypt and Britain, although in practice Britain controlled the reins of government. Since Egypt was a British Foreign Office responsibility, the Sudan also came under the Foreign office supervision. The Foreign Office nominated the Governor General and also recruited the civilians in the Sudan civil service. General Kitchener was appointed as the first Governor General assisted by Sir Reginald Wingate as director of Intelligence and Sir Rudolf von Slatin Pasha as Inspector-General. Pre-1920, British officers were filled the senior positions in the Sudan government civil service, seconded Egyptian officers occupied the middle ranks and Egyptian and Sudanese officers occupied the junior ranks with some Lebanese also. Starting in 1905, the ruling cadres of the Sudan civilian civil service were gradually recruited from British 'public' schools and the elite Oxford and Cambridge universities. There was no examination for entry into the Sudan civil service unlike the system the British used for the Indian civil service. Educated Sudanese replaced the Egyptian and Lebanese in the lower and medium level ranks of the civil service over time.

From 1910 to 1948 the Governor-General was assisted by the Governor-General's Council. This council, initially was only advisory but came to have authority for all legislative and council matters. It was made up of the inspector-general, the civil, legal, and financial secretaries and two to four other appointed British officials. There were many other other government committees included the Central Economic Board, Central Sanitary Board, Roads and Communications Board and the River Board.

During the Second world War, Sudanese were promoted to higher ranks of the Civil Service as Britons were called away to fight (in 1939 there were 840 British officials but by 1941 there were 716 of which 150 were due to retire within two years ). This process of 'moving up the ladder' accelerated after the war as the British prepared for Sudanese independence (although the job titles and salaries of the Sudanese officials were typically lower than equivalent British co-workers). From 1944 to 1948 the Governor Generalwas asissted by an Advisory Council for the Northern Sudan which had 30 members - 18 from the Province Councils, 10 nominated by the GovernorGeneral and two honorary members.

Local government
Sudan was initially divided into six (later nine ) provinces - Dongola, Berber, Kassala, Sennar, Fashoda and Khartoum. Each province had a Governor or mudir (normally British) and each provincial district had a British inspector (after 1922 called a district commissioner) or mufattish and under him in charge of sub-districts were mamurs (initially mostly Egyptian but gradually replaced by Sudanese). The District commissioners were "...judges, policemen, tax collectors, builders, road-engineers, and sometimes doctors and veterinary surgeons.." British policy initially was to leave rural local government in the hands of tribal officials whereas educated Sudanese civil servants were recruited to administer local government in settled areas and towns. However tribal disintegration caused by political and economic upheaval gradually made the tribal policy difficult to continue implementing.

Relations between Egypt and the United Kingdom
In 1914 Turkey allied itself with Germany and Austria and Britain declared Egypt a protectorate and took control of Egyptian affairs

Justice
In local areas the District Commissioner was the representative of the Governor General and heard criminal and civil court cases and supervised the police and prisons.

Defence
The origins of the Sudanese Army date to Sudanese soldiers recruited by the British during the reconquest of Sudan in 1898. In 1922, after nationalist riots stimulated by Egyptian leader Saad Zaghloul, Egypt was granted independence by the United Kingdom. The Egyptians wanted more oversight in the Sudan and created specialized units of Sudanese auxiliaries within the Egyptian Army called Al-Awtirah. This became the nucleus of the modern Sudanese Army.

The British Army formed the Sudan Defence Force (SDF) as local auxiliaries in 1925. The SDF consisted of a number of separate regiments. Most were made up of Muslim soldiers and stationed in the north, but the Equatoria Corps in the south was composed of Christians. Some officers of the SDF were promoted from among the ranks of the Sudanese soldiers until the Sudanese Military College opened during the Second World War making the SDF a dependable support for the British regime. During World War II, seventy Sudanese officers were promoted to higher ranks.The the SDF augmented allied forces engaging Italians in Ethiopia. They also served during the Western Desert Campaign, supporting Free French and Long Range Desert Group operations at Kufra and Jalo oases in the Libyan Desert. In 1947, the Sudanese military schools were closed, and the number of Sudanese troops was reduced to 7,570. In 1948, the first Arab-Israeli War broke out. Sudanese Colonel Harold Saleh Al-Malik selected 250 combat-seasoned soldiers who had seen action in World War II. They arrived in Cairo to participate in a parade and were then dispatched to various units of the Egyptian army. This was a grave mistake, for the Sudanese had fought together in World War II and this broke unit cohesion. The decision was indicative of Egyptian military planners of the period. Forty-three Sudanese were killed in action in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. During the 1963-55 period the SDF became completely sudanese and General Ahmed Mohammed became Sudan's first army chief in August 1954. The last British troops, 1st Battalion Royal Leicestershire Regiment, left the country in August 1955. However, ominously for the newly independent Sudan, the Equatoria Corps mutinied at Torit on 18 August 1955, just before independence, prompting the formation of the Anyanya guerilla movement and the First Sudanese Civil War. A company of the Equatoria Corps had been ordered to make ready to move to the north, but instead of obeying, the troops mutinied, along with other Southern soldiers across the South in Juba, Yei, Yombo, and Maridi.

The size of the Sudan Defence Force (4,500 troops in 1925 ) was relatively small for the biggest country in Africa, about the same size as continental Europe or quarter the size of the United States. .

One source wrote that Sudan was "the one African Country south of the Sahara to emerge from the colonial period with a military establishment possessing the attributes of an independent national army." However internal religious and racial divisions led to the mutiny and disbandment of the Equatoria Corps (recruited from southern Sudanese) in 1955 and the commencement of a 17-year civil war after Independence.

South of Sudan
From 1899 to 1920, the British policy in the South of Sudan was to pacify this part of the country. There was no attempt at economic development, little real administration and education was left to missionary bodies.

The British essentially divided Sudan into two separate territories–a predominantly Muslim Arabic-speaking north, and a predominantly Animist and Christian south, where the use of English was encouraged by Christian missionaries, whose main role was instructional.

Relations with Egypt
Thus, an agreement was reached in 1899 establishing Anglo-Egyptian rule (a condominium), under which Sudan was to be administered by a governor-general appointed by Egypt with British consent. In reality, much to the revulsion of Egyptian and Sudanese nationalists,

Sudan was effectively administered as a British imperial possession. Pursuing a policy of divide and rule, the British were keen to reverse the process, started under Muhammad Ali, of uniting the Nile Valley under Egyptian leadership, and sought to frustrate all efforts aimed at further uniting the two countries. During World War I, in view of the Ruler of Darfur's support for the British invaded and incorporated Darfur into the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan in 1916.

The continued British occupation of Sudan fuelled an increasingly strident nationalist backlash in Egypt, with Egyptian nationalist leaders determined to force Britain to recognise a single independent union of Egypt and Sudan. With the formal end in 1914 of the legal fiction of Ottoman sovereignty, Hussein Kamel was declared Sultan of Egypt and Sudan, as was his brother Fuad I who succeeded him. The insistence of a single Egyptian-Sudanese state persisted when the Sultanate was re-titled the Kingdom of Egypt and Sudan, but the British continued to frustrate these efforts.

In 1924 the British Governor-General Stack was assassinated in Cairo and the British ordered all Egyptian troops who were not trusted, to leave Sudan. A group of Sudanese military officers known as the White Flag League (who confusingly aimed for revolted in 1924.

In 1936 Britain and Egypt signed an agreement that Egyptian troops (barred from Sudan since 1924) would be 'placed at the disposal' of the Governor-General, Egyptians were allowed unlimited immigration ('except for reasons of public health and order') and both governments pledged that their aim was the 'welfare of the Sudanese.' This agreement was met with suspicion by educated Sudanese who feared the Egyptians would demand sovereignty over Sudan.

Even when the British ended their occupation of Egypt in 1936 (with the exception of the Suez Canal Zone), they maintained their forces in Sudan. Successive governments in Cairo, repeatedly declaring their abrogation of the condominium agreement, declared the British presence in Sudan to be illegitimate, and insisted on full British recognition of King Farouk as "King of Egypt and Sudan", a recognition which the British were loath to grant; not least because Farouk was secretly negotiating with Mussolini for an Italian invasion. The defeat of this damaging demarche of 1940 for Anglo-Egyptian relations helped to turn the tide of the Second World War.

Self-government and Independence
After the Second World War, the British authorities accelerated work towards self-government for Sudan. Educated Sudanese had been promoted to posts in the Sudan government previously reserved for the British and Sudanese soldiers had been promoted in the Sudan Defence Force to more senior ranks. In the UK a Labour government was voted into power in 1945 and was in favour of self-determination of British overseas possessions and the USA and Russia, the two major world powers, were firmly in favour of self-government in general. The two main Sudanese political parties at that time were the majority Umma a pro-Sudanese independence party and Ashigga, a pro-union with Egypt party. In June1948 the Governor General, over Egyptian objections, issued an Ordinance that led to the first Sudanese partially elected consultative Legislative Assembly in December 1948 with 85 Sudanese (13 from South Sudan) and five British members. Pro-Egyption parties boycotted the elctions so the pro-independence prties dominated the Assembly at the start. Ominously for the future, South Sudanese politicians were distrustful of immediate independence and the Northern Sudanese politicians and wanted strong constitutional safeguards.

In 1951 Egypt unilaterally abrogated the 1896 and 1936 agreements with Britain and announced a new constitution for Sudan. This was rejected by the British and the Umma party and a Self-Government Statute was passed by the Legislative Assembly in 1952. This statute set up an all-Sudanese cabinet and a parliament of 81 deputies and a senate of 50. The Governor General was the 'Supreme Constitutional Authority' of the country. This was accepted by the British, the Egyptians withdrew their constitution for Sudan and the Egyptian leader King Farouk was overthrown in the Egyptian Revolution of 1952.

In February 1953, the governments of Egypt and the UK signed a treaty guaranteeing Sudanese independence and Egypt renounced all previous claims to sovereignty over Sudan. on 1 January 1956, Sudan became an independent sovereign state, ending its its 56-year status as an Anglo-Egyptian condominium.

Irrigation and the Gezira scheme
In 1929, Egypt and Britain signed the Nile Waters agreement which allocated 11 parts of the river Nile waters to Egypt versus 1 to Sudan. No Sudanese were party to this agreement which gave Egypt a larger share than they had had before angered politically conscious Sudanese.

In the 1920s, private irrigation projects using diesel pumps also had begun to appear in Al Khartum Province, mainly along the White Nile, to provide vegetables, fruit, and other foods to the capital area. In 1937 a dam was built by the Sudan government upstream from Khartoum on the White Nile at Jabal al Awliya to regulate the supply of water to Egypt during the August to April period of declining flow. Grazing and cultivated land along the river was flooded for almost 300 kilometres (190 mi). The government thereupon established seven pump irrigation projects, partially financed by Egypt, to provide the area's inhabitants with an alternative to transhumance. This irrigation project eventually proved successful, making possible large surpluses of cotton and sorghum and encouraging private entrepreneurs to undertake new projects. High cotton profits during the Korean War (1950–53) increased private interest along the Blue Nile as well,

The waters of the Nile in Sudan have been used for centuries for traditional irrigation, taking advantage of the annual Nile flood. The traditional shaduf (a device to raise water) and waterwheel were also used to lift water to fields in local irrigation projects but were rapidly being replaced by more efficient mechanized pump systems. Among the first efforts to employ irrigation for modern commercial cropping was the use of the floodwaters of the Qash River and the Baraka River (both of which originate in Ethiopia) in eastern Sudan to grow cotton on their deltas. Cultivation was resumed in 1896 in the Baraka Delta in the Tawkar area, but in the Qash Delta it only resumed after World War I. Between 1924 and 1926, canals were built in the latter delta to control the flood; sandstorms made canals unfeasible in the Baraka. After the 1940s, various projects were developed to irrigate land. Both deltas yielded only one crop a year, watered by the flood.

The country's largest irrigation project had been developed on land between the Blue and White Nile rivers south of their confluence at Khartoum. This area is generally flat with a gentle slope to the north and west, permitting natural gravity irrigation, and its soils are fertile cracking clays well suited to irrigation. The project originated in 1911, when a private British enterprise, Sudan Plantations Syndicate, found cotton suited to the area and embarked on what in the 1920s became the Gezira Scheme, intended principally to furnish cotton to the British textile industry. Backed by a loan from the British government, the syndicate began a dam on the Blue Nile at Sannar in 1913. Work was interrupted by World War I, and the dam was not completed until 1925. The project was limited by a 1929 agreement between Sudan and Egypt that restricted the amount of water Anglo-Egyptian Sudan could use during the dry season. By 1931 the project had expanded to 450,000 hectares (1,100,000 acres), the maximum that then could be irrigated by the available water, although an additional 10,000 hectares (25,000 acres) were added in the 1950s. The project was nationalized in 1950, and was operated by the Sudan Gezira Board as a government enterprise.

It was discovered that the level of the Blue Nile was higher than the White Nile in the triangular area south of the confluence of the two nile tributaries at Khartoum. The Government constructed a dam at Sennar on the Blue Nile which allowed irrigation of this area called the Gezira which was highly productive - particularly for growing cotton.

The Gezira Scheme, located between the Blue and White Niles near their confluence at Khartoum, is the world's largest under a single management and provides a substantial portion of foreign exchange and government revenue. This storage irrigation project, which covers 840,000 hectares (more than two million acres) but has an additional potential of two million hectares (5 million acres), dates back to 1911 and was put into operation by a British firm. After the expiration of the firm's contract with the Sudanese government in 1950, the land was leased to tenant farmers, who numbered over 100,000 in 1987. They manage the scheme jointly with the government through the Gezira Board.

Farming
About one-third of the total area of Sudan was suitable for agricultural development. Abundant rainfall in the south permitted both agriculture and grazing grounds for the large herds owned by nomadic tribes. In the north, along the banks of the Nile and other rivers, irrigation farming prevailed. Of an estimated 16.9 million hectares (41.8 million acres)(???) of arable landing in ...., about 1.9 million hectares (4.7 million acres)(??) were irrigated. Principal cash crops were cotton, sesame, peanuts, sugarcane, dates, citrus fruits, mangoes, coffee, and tobacco; the principal subsistence crops are sorghum, millet, wheat, beans, cowpeas, pulses, corn, and barley. Cotton was the principal export crop and an integral part of the country's economy. In ..., agricultural products accounted for 21.9% of imports and 19.2% of exports;(???) there was an agricultural trade deficit of $24.5 million(???).

Forestry
The forestry subsector comprised both traditional gatherers of firewood and producers of charcoal--the main sources of fuel for homes and some industry in urban areas—and a modern timber and sawmilling industry, the latter government owned. Approximately 21 million cubic meters (???) of wood, mainly for fuel, were cut in .... Gum arabic production in year ... was about 40,000 tons.[1] In ..., it was in most years the second biggest export after cotton, amounting to about ... percent of total exports.

Education
{{See also|Education in Sudan#The condominium, 1898-1956}|Education in Sudan during the Condominium}

Elementary and secondary schools
In 1903 there were four government primary schools and a few elementary village Koran schools (kuttabs) - all for boys. More primary and secondary schools were installed as British were keen to develop educated Sudanese to occupy the lower ranks of the Sudanese government bureaucracy. The first school for Sudanese girls was opened in 1907 at Rufa'a on the Blue Nile.

In the 1930s and 1940s there was an expansion in secondary schools in the northern Sudan.

Higher education
General Kitchener appealed for funds in the Britain for a Gordon Memorial College of higher education and by 1898 the college had started. Gordon memorial College expanded and became an 'elite' Sudanese centre of higher education capable of supplying the middle ranks of the Sudan Civil Service. In 1956, after independence it became the University of Khartoum.

In 1938 the decision was taken to provide more post-secondary schooling, leading towards the establishment of a university. In 1944 some secondary schools were amalgamated to form a university, offering degrees equivalent to a United Kingdom degree.

Education in the South of the Sudan
Initially the government did nothing for education in the South of Sudan. The education of Sudanese in the South of the country left in the hands of four Roman Catholic and Protestant Missionary organisations. From 1926 these organisations were given government grants to operate and were supervised by government inspectors. The first government school opened in 1940. Education was in local languages at primary level, and in English at higher level. Teacher training colleges were set up at Mundri and Bussere.

Railways
A railway was built to carry the Anglo-Egyptian army to Sudan to fight the Mahdist armies. The railway from Wadi Halfa on the Egyptian border, to Atabara (1898) and Khartoum (1899). After the defeat of the Mahdists, the railway was expanded east to Port Sudan (2005), south to Sennar (1909) west to El Obeid (1912). The railways were run as a government department and Sudan had the largest rail network of any country in Africa with 3,685 km (2,290 miles) of track which carried 1,721,000 passengers and 1,113,000 tons of freight in 1949.

Air transport
Imperial Airways started the first commercial airline service in Sudan in 1932. In 1936 a route between Cairo, Khartoum and Lagos in Nigeria was started. The El Fasher airport was extensively used during the second World War as a refuelling point for lend-lease planes from the US on their way to the North African war. By 1950 jet planes could use Khartoum airport and there were nine other airports in Sudan and twenty two permanent landing grounds. The government-owned Sudan Airways mostly concentrated in internal flights, for example between Khartoum, Atbara, El Fasher, El Obeid, Kasala, Malakal,Merowe and Wau with one route to Eritrea using De Havilland Doves and Vikings in 1951.

Shipping
Sudan had only one operational deep-water harbor, Port Sudan, situated on an inlet of the Red Sea. The port had been built from scratch, beginning in 1905, to complement the railroad line from Khartoum to the Red Sea by serving as the entry and exit point for the foreign trade the rail line was to carry.

The Nile River, traversing Sudan from south to north, provides an important inland transportation route. However, its overall usefulness has been limited by natural features, including a number of cataracts on the main Nile between Khartoum and the Egyptian border. The White Nile to the south of Khartoum has shallow stretches that restrict the carrying capacities of barges, especially during the low water period, and the river has sharp bends. Man-made features have also introduced restrictions, the most important of which was a dam constructed in the 1930s on the White Nile about forty kilometers upriver from Khartoum. This dam has locks, but they have not always operated well, and the river has been little used from Khartoum to the port of Kusti, a railroad crossing 319 kilometers upstream. The Sennar and Roseires dams on the Blue Nile are without locks and restrict traffic on that river.

Road Transport
In ...., Sudan's road system totaled between 20,000 and 25,000 kilometers (??), comprising an extremely sparse network for the size of the country. Asphalted, all-weather roads, excluding paved streets in cities and towns, amounted to roughly 3,000 to 3,500 kilometers, of which the Khartoum-Port Sudan road accounted for almost 1,200 kilometers. There were between 3,000 and 4,000 kilometers of gravel roads located mostly in the southern region where lateritic road-building materials were abundant. In general, these roads were usable all year round, although travel could be interrupted at times during the rainy season. The remaining roads were little more than fair-weather earth and sand tracks. Those in the clayey soil of eastern Sudan, a region of great economic importance, were impassable for several months during the rainy season. Even in the dry season, earthen roads on the sandy soils found in various parts of the country were generally usable only by motor vehicles equipped with special tires.

Finance and Tax
Initially the existing system of land tax from the Khalifa era was used to gather revenue but gradually herd taxes and date tree taxes were introduced as outlying districts came under better control of the central government. As an example, a May 1899 ordinance divided land into four categories - land irrigated by wells, island land irrigated by native means; mainland land also irrigated by native means; and land irrigated by river flood. Land tax rates varied from 20 piasters (20% of a GB£) to 60 piastres (60% of a GB£) per acre and tax on date trees was set at 2 piastres (5% of a GB£) per tree.

Public Health
Initially Egyptian military medical officers gave medical help in the countryside. Small hospitals were set up in seven towns by 1901 (Berber, Dongola, Kassala, Omdurman, Suakin and Wadi Halfa ) but there was no general campaign to eradicate malaria or give vaccinations due to lack of funds. In 1909 there was an outbreak of sleeping sickness when the carrier tsetse fly entered South Sudan from the Belgian Congo. The government instituted isolation camps, quarantine and clearing operations and the outbreak was held in check. Four larger hospitals were constructed in 1909 but, apart from anti-mosquito measures in the Zeidab and Taiyaba irrigation schemes, there was no further expansion of medical services until 1920 when six more hospitals were built and a midwives training school set up in Omdurman.



Governors

 * List of governors of pre-independence Sudan

Chief Justices

 * 1903–1917 Wasey Sterry (until 1915 Chief Judge)
 * 1917–1926 Robert Hay Dun
 * 1926–1930 Sir Bernard Humphrey Bell
 * 1930?–1936? Howell Owen
 * 1936–1941 Thomas Percival Creed
 * 1941–1944 Sir Hubert Flaxman
 * 1944–1946 Cecil Harry Andrew Bennett
 * 1946–1947 Sir Charles Cecil George Cumings
 * 1947–1950 Thomas Arthur Maclagan
 * 1950–1955 William O'Brien Lindsay
 * 1955–1964 Mohamed Ahmed Abu Rannat