User:Taiwantaffy/POJ

Pe̍h-ōe-jī (pronounced ; abbreviated to POJ; literally vernacular writing; also known as Church Romanization) is an orthography used to write variants of the Chinese Southern Min language/dialect, particularly Taiwanese and Amoy Hokkien. Developed by Western missionaries working among the Chinese diaspora in Southeast Asia in the nineteenth century and refined by missionaries working in Xiamen and Tainan, it uses a modified latin alphabet together with some diacritics to represent the spoken language. After initial success in Fujian, POJ became most widespread in Taiwan, and in the mid-twentieth century there were over 100,000 people literate in POJ. A large amount of printed material, religious and secular, has been produced in the script, including Taiwan's first newspaper, the Taiwan Church News.

The orthography was suppressed during the Japanese era in Taiwan, and faced further countermeasures during the Kuomintang martial law period. In Fujian use declined after the establishment of the People's Republic of China and today the system is not in general use there. Use of Pe̍h-ōe-jī is now restricted to some Taiwanese Christians, non-native learners of the language, and native-speaker enthusiasts in Taiwan. Full native computer support arrived in 2004, and users can now call on fonts, input methods, and extensive online dictionaries. Rival writing systems have been developed over time, and there ongoing debate within the Taiwanese mother tongue movement as to which system should be used. Versions of Pe̍h-ōe-jī have been devised for other languages, including Hakka, Gan, Teochew, and Min Dong.

Name
The name Pe̍h-ōe-jī literally means vernacular writing, i.e. written characters  representing everyday spoken language. Though the name vernacular writing could be applied to many kinds of writing, romanised and character-based, the term Pe̍h-ōe-jī is commonly restricted to the Southern Min romanization system developed by Presbyterian missionaries in the nineteenth century. The missionaries who invented and refined the system didn't use the term Pe̍h-ōe-jī, however, instead using various names such as Romanised Amoy Vernacular and Romanised Amoy Colloquial. The origins of the system and its extensive use in the Christian community has led to it being known by some modern-day writers as Church Romanization (often abbreviated to 教罗/教羅). There is some debate as to whether Pe̍h-ōe-jī or Church Romanization is the more appropriate name. Objections raised to Pe̍h-ōe-jī include that the surface meaning of the word itself is more generic than one specific system, and that both literary and colloquial register Southern Min appear in the system (meaning that describing it as vernacular writing might be inaccurate). Opposition to the name Church Romanization is based on the identification with the church, as the writing is used by a wider community than just Christians, and for secular as well as sacred writing. One commentator observes that POJ "today is largely disassociated from its former religious purposes". The term "romanization" is also disliked by some, as the word connotes a supplementary phonetic system rather than an orthography. Sources disagree on which represents the more commonly used name of the two.

History
The history of Peh-oe-ji has been heavily influenced by official attitudes towards the Southern Min vernaculars and the Christian organisations who propagated it. Early documents point to the purpose of the creation of POJ as being pedagogical in nature, closely allied to educating Christian converts.

Early development
The first people to use a romanized script to write Southern Min were Spanish missionaries in Manila in the sixteenth century. However, it was used mainly as a teaching aid for Spanish learners of the language, and seems not to have had any influence on the development of Pe̍h-ōe-jī. In the early nineteenth century, China was closed to Christian missionaries, who instead proselytized to overseas Chinese communities in South East Asia. The earliest origins of the system are found in a small vocabulary first printed in 1820 by Walter Henry Medhurst, who went on to publish the Dictionary of the Hok-këèn Dialect of the Chinese Language, According to the Reading and Colloquial Idioms in 1832. This dictionary represents the first major reference work in POJ, although the romanization within was quite different from the modern system, and has been dubbed Early Church Romanization by one scholar of the subject. Medhurst, who was stationed in Malacca, was influenced by Robert Morrison's romanization of Mandarin Chinese, but had to innovate in several areas to reflect major differences between Mandarin and Southern Min. Several important developments occurred in Medhurst's work, with the most crucial being consistent tone markings (influenced by contemporary linguistic studies of Sanskrit, which was becoming of more mainstream interest to Western scholars). Medhurst was convinced that accurate representation and reproduction of the tonal structure of Hokkien was vital to comprehension: "Respecting these tones of the Chinese language, some difference of opinion has been obtained, and while some have considered them of first importance, others have paid them little or no intention. The author inclines decidedly to the former opinion; having found, from uniform experience, that without strict attention to tones, it is impossible for a person to make himself understood in Hok-këèn." The system expounded by Medhurst had some influence on later dictionary compilers with regards to tonal notation and initials, but both his complicated vowel system and his emphasis on the literary register of Southern Min were dropped by later writers. Following on from Medhurst's work, Samuel Wells Williams became the chief proponent of major changes in the orthography devised by Morrison and adapted by Medhurst. Through personal communication and letters and articles printed in The Chinese Repository a consensus was arrived at for the new version of POJ, although Williams' suggestions were largely not followed. The first major work to represent this new orthography was Elihu Doty's Anglo-Chinese Manual with Romanized Colloquial in the Amoy Dialect, published in 1853, which can be therefore regarded as the first presentation of a pre-modern POJ, a significant step onwards from Medhurst's orthography and different from today's system in only a few details. From this point on various authors tinkered with some of the consonants and vowels, but the system of tone marks from Doty's Manual survives intact in modern POJ. John Van Nest Talmage has traditionally been regarded as the founder of POJ among the community which uses the orthography, although it now seems that he was an early promoter of the system, rather than its inventor. In 1842 the Treaty of Nanking was concluded, which included among its provisions the creation of treaty ports, in which Christian missionaries would be free to preach. Xiamen (then known as Amoy) was one of these treaty ports, and British, Canadian and American missionaries moved in to start proselytizing. These missionaries, housed in the cantonment of Gulangyu, created reference works and religious tracts, including a bible translation. Naturally, they based the pronunciation of their romanization on the speech of Xiamen, which became the de facto standard when they eventually moved into other areas of the Hokkien sprachbund, most notably Taiwan. The 1858 Treaty of Tianjin officially opened Taiwan to western missionaries, and Missionary Societies were quick to send men to work in the field, usually after a sojourn in Xiamen to acquire the rudiments of the language.

Maturity
Quanzhou and Zhangzhou are two major varieties of Southern Min, and in Xiamen they combined to form something "not Quan, not Zhang" - i.e. not one or the other, but rather a fusion, which became known as Amoy Dialect or Amoy Chinese. In Taiwan, with its mixture of migrants from both Quanzhou and Zhangzhou, the linguistic situation was similar, although the resulting blend in the southern city of Tainan was different to the Xiamen blend, it was close enough that the missionaries could ignore the differences and import their system wholesale. The fact that religious tracts, dictionaries, and teaching guides already existed in the Xiamen tongue meant that the missionaries in Taiwan could begin proselytizing immediately, without the intervening time needed to write those materials. Missionary opinion was divided on whether POJ was desirable as an end in itself as a fully-fledged orthography, or as a means to literacy in Chinese characters. William Campbell described POJ as a step on the road to reading and writing Hanzi, claiming that to promote it as an independent writing system would inflame nationalist passions in China, where Hanzi were considered a sacred part of Chinese culture. Taking the other side, Thomas Barclay believed that literacy in POJ should be a goal rather than a waypoint: "Soon after my arrival in Formosa I became firmly convinced of three things, and more than fifty years experience has strengthened my conviction. The first was that if you are to have a healthy, living Church it is necessary that all the members, men and women, read the Scriptures for themselves; second, that this end can never be attained by the use of the Chinese character; third, that it can be attained by the use of the alphabetic script, this Romanised Vernacular."

A great boon to the promotion of POJ in Taiwan came in 1880 when James Laidlaw Maxwell, a medical missionary based in Tainan, donated a small printing press to the local church, which Thomas Barclay learned how to operate in 1881 before founding the Presbyterian Church Press in 1884. Subsequently the Taiwan Prefectural City Church News, which first appeared in 1885 and was produced by Barclay's Presbyterian Church of Taiwan Press, became the first printed newspaper in Taiwan.

"Khó-sioh lín pún-kok ê jī chin oh, chió chió lâng khòaⁿ ē hiáu-tit. Só͘-í góan ū siat pa̍t-mih ê hoat-tō͘, ēng pe̍h-ōe-jī lâi ìn-chheh, hō͘ lín chèng-lâng khòaⁿ khah khòai bat... Lâng m̄-thang phah-sǹg in-ūi i bat Khóng-chú-jī só͘-í m̄-bián o̍h chit-hō ê jī; iā m̄-thang khòaⁿ-khin i, kóng sī gín-á só͘-tha̍k--ê.

Because the characters in your country are so difficult only a few people are literate. Therefore we have striven to print books in Pe̍h-ōe-jī to help you to read... don't think that if you know Chinese characters you needn't learn this script, nor should you regard it as a childish thing."

- Thomas Barclay

Ernest Tipson's 1934 pocket dictionary was the first reference work to reflect the modern orthography used in Pe̍h-ōe-jī. Between Medhurst's dictionary of 1832 and the standardisation of POJ in Tipson's time, there were a number of works published, which can be used to chart the change over time of Pe̍h-ōe-jī:

, where items in parenthesis indicate optional components.

The initials are:
 * b ch chh g h j k kh l m n ng

Medial vowels:
 * i o

Nuclei:
 * a e i o o͘ u m ng

Stops:
 * m n ng h p t k

POJ has a limited amount of legitimate syllables, although sources disagree on some particular instances of these syllables. The following table contains all the licit spellings of POJ syllables, based on a number of sources:

Tone markings
In standard Amoy or Taiwanese Hokkien there are seven distinct tones, which by convention are numbered 1–8, with number 6 omitted (tone 6 used to be a distinct tone, but has long since merged with tone 2). Tones 1 and 4 are both represented without a diacritic, and can be distinguished from each other by the syllable ending, which is a vowel, ⟨-n⟩, ⟨-m⟩, or ⟨-ng⟩ for tone 1, and ⟨-h⟩, ⟨-k⟩, ⟨-p⟩, and ⟨-t⟩ for tone 4. Hokkien languages undergo considerable tone sandhi, i.e. changes to the tone depending on the position of the syllable in any given sentence or utterance. However, like Hanyu Pinyin for Mandarin Chinese, POJ always marks the citation tone (i.e. the original, pre-sandhi tone) rather than the tone which is actually spoken. This means that when reading aloud the reader must adjust the tone markings on the page to account for sandhi. Some textbooks for learners of the language mark both the citation tone and the sandhi tone to assist the learner.

There is some debate as to the correct placement of tone marks in the case of diphthongs and triphthongs, particularly those which include  and . Most modern writers follow the following six rules:


 * 1) If the syllable has one vowel, that vowel should be tone-marked; viz. ⟨tī⟩, ⟨láng⟩, ⟨chhu̍t⟩
 * 2) If a diphthong contains ⟨i⟩ or ⟨u⟩>, the tone mark goes above the other vowel; viz. ⟨ia̍h⟩, ⟨kiò⟩, ⟨táu⟩
 * 3) If a diphthong includes both ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩, mark the ⟨u⟩; viz. ⟨iû⟩, ⟨ùi⟩
 * 4) If the final is made up of three or more letters, mark the second vowel (except when rules 2 and 3 apply); viz. ⟨goán⟩, ⟨oāi⟩, ⟨khiáu⟩
 * 5) If ⟨o⟩ occurs with ⟨a⟩ or ⟨e⟩, mark the ⟨o >; viz. ⟨òa⟩, ⟨thóe⟩
 * 6) If the syllable has no vowel, mark the nasal consonant; viz. ⟨m̄⟩, ⟨ǹg⟩, ⟨mn̂g⟩

Hyphens
A single hyphen is used to indicated a compound. What constitutes a compound is controversial, with some authors equating it to a "word" in English, and others not willing to limit it to the English concept of a word. Examples from POJ include ⟨sì-cha̍p⟩ "forty", ⟨bé-hì-thôan⟩ "circus", and ⟨hôe-ho̍k⟩ "recover (from illness)". The rule-based sandhi behaviour of tones in compounds has not yet been clearly defined by linguists. A double hyphen is used when POJ is deployed as a full orthography (rather than as a transciption system) to indicate that the following syllable should be pronounced in the neutral tone. It also marks to the reader that the preceding syllable does not undergo tone sandhi, as it would were the following syllable non-neutral. Morphemes following a double hyphen are often (but not always) grammatical function words.

Regional differences
In addition to the standard syllables detailed above, there are several regional variations of Hokkien speech which can be represented with non-standard spellings. In Zhangzhou and parts of Taiwan which are closely related to the Zhangzhou dialect (particularly the northwest around Yilan), the final ng is replaced with uiⁿ, for example in "egg" (nuiⁿ) and "cooked rice" (puiⁿ).

Texts
Due to POJ's origins in the church, much of the material in the script is religious in nature, including several Bible translations, books of hymns, and guides to morality. The Tainan Church Press, established in 1884, has been printing POJ materials ever since, with periods of quiet when POJ was suppressed in the early 1940s and from around 1955 to 1987. In the period to 1955, over 2.3 million volumes of POJ books were printed, and one study in 2002 catalogued 840 different POJ texts in existence. Besides a Southern Min version of Wikipedia in the orthography, there are teaching materials, religious texts, and books about linguistics, medicine and geography.
 * Lán ê Kiù-chú Iâ-sȯ Ki-tok ê Sin-iok (1873 translation of the New Testament)
 * Lāi-goā-kho Khàn-hō͘-ha̍k
 * Amoy-English Dictionary
 * Lear Ong (translation of King Lear)

Computing
POJ was initially not well supported by word-processing applications due to the special diacritics needed to write it. Support has now improved and there are now sufficient resources to both enter and display POJ correctly. Several input methods exist to enter Unicode-compliant POJ, including OpenVanilla (Mac OS X and Windows), the cross-platform Tai-lo Input Method released by the Taiwanese Ministry of Education, and the Firefox add-on Transliterator, which allows in-browser POJ input. When POJ was first used in word-processing applications it was not fully supported by the Unicode standard, thus necessitating work-arounds. One employed was encoding the necessary characters in the "Private Use" section of Unicode, but this required both the writer and the reader to have the correct custom font installed. Another solution was to replace troublesome characters with near equivalents, for example substituting ⟨ä⟩ for ⟨ā⟩ or using a standard ⟨o⟩ followed by an interpunct to represent ⟨o͘⟩. In 2004 with the introduction into Unicode 4.1.0 of the combining diacritic  (U+0358) all the necessary characters were present to write regular POJ without the need for workarounds. However, even after the addition of these characters, there are still relatively few fonts which are able to properly render the script, including the combining diacritics. Some of those which can are Charis SIL, DejaVu, Doulos SIL, Linux Libertine, and Taigi Unicode.

Han-Romanization mixed script
One of the most popular modern ways of writing Taiwanese is by using a mixed orthography called Hàn-lô (literally Chinese-Roman), and sometimes Han-Romanization mixed script. In fact, the term Hàn-lô does not describe one specific system, but covers any kind of writing in Southern Min which features both Chinese characters and romanization. That romanization is usually POJ, although recently some texts have begun appearing with Tâi-lô spellings too. The problem with using only Chinese characters to write Southern Min is that there are many morphemes (estimated to be around 15% of running text) which are not definitively associated with a particular character. Various strategies have been developed to deal with the issue, including creating new characters, allocating Mandarin characters with similar meanings (but dissimilar etymology) to represent the missing characters, or using romanization for the "missing 15%". There are two rationales for using mixed orthography writing, with two different aims. The first is to allow native speakers (almost all of whom can already write Chinese characters) to make use of their knowledge of characters, while replacing the missing 15% with romanization. The second is to wean character literates off using them gradually, to be replaced eventually by fully romanized text. Examples of modern texts in Hàn-lô include religious, pedagogical, scholarly, and literary works, such as:

Adaptations for other languages/dialects
POJ has been adapted for several other languages and dialects, with varying degrees of success. For Hakka, missionaries and others have produced a bible translation, hymn book, textbooks, and dictionaries. Materials produced in the orthography, called Pha̍k-fa-sṳ, include: A modified version of POJ has also been created for Teochew; there is currently a test version of Wikipedia using the orthography. Other Chinese languages/dialects covered by POJ variants include Gan Chinese, and Min Dong.

Current status
The majority of native Southern Min speakers in Taiwan are unfamiliar with POJ or any other writing system for the language, commonly asserting that "Taiwanese has no writing", or considering romanization as the "low" form of writing, in contrast with the "high" form (Chinese characters). For those who are introduced to POJ alongside Han-lo and completely Chinese character-based systems, a clear preference has been shown for all-character systems, with all-romanization systems finishing bottom of the preference list, likely due to the preexisting familiarity of readers with Chinese characters.

POJ remains the Taiwanese orthography "with the richest inventory of written work, including dictionaries, textbooks, literature [...] and other publications in many areas". A 1999 estimate put the number of literate POJ users at around 100,000, and secular organizations have been formed to promote the use of romanization among Taiwanese speakers. Outside Taiwan, POJ is rarely used, for example in Fujian where Xiamen University uses a romanization known as Pumindian, based on Hanyu Pinyin. In other areas where Hokkien is spoken, such as Singapore, an active campaign is underway to discourage people from speaking it and other "dialects" in favour of switching to Mandarin instead.

In 2006 Taiwan's Ministry of Education chose an official romanization for use in teaching the language in the state school system. POJ was one of the candidate systems, along with Daighi tongiong pingim, but in the end a compromise system, Tâi-lô, was chosen, which retains most of the orthographic standards of POJ, including the tone marks, while changing the troublesome o͘ character for oo, swapping ts for ch, and replacing o in diphthongs with u. Supporters of Taiwanese writing are in general deeply suspicious of government involvement, given the history of official suppression of native languages, making it unclear whether Tai-Lo or POJ will become the dominant system in the future.