User:Threelovemonkeys/Sandbox

Alexander von Humboldt was an early and major contributor to the science of phytogeography.



Municipality
Bornholm Regional Municipality is the local authority (Danish, kommune) covering the entire island. It comprises the five former municipalities on the island (Allinge-Gudhjem, Hasle, Nexø, Rønne and Aakirkeby) and the former Bornholm County. The seat of the municipal council is the island's main town, Rønne. The first regional mayor is Bjarne Kristiansen.

Alright, this looks like a fine place to make a Sandbox. I wonder if it is case sensitive. Blimey

I wonder how I add links

Headline text
Your stinking sand malfeasance born sandwich shoreline sedges
 * 1) REDIRECT User:Threelovemonkeys

McGillicudy is in charge of the stamp boss committee
$$9+peoplepie = 321.kickshop\%/26.001999$$

Clearly I have much to learn User:Threelovemonkeys

This is Bold Homo sapiens neanderthalensis

Use this sparingly:

Ok that was only six times. Far less than eight (two less).

$$2 = far less$$

The number of those lines was a subject of wide speculation in scientific circles as well as among laypeople. It may seem apparent that there are 7 lines... when you are sober and(or) a little girl (they're famous for their clear common sense from the times of Lewis Karoll). With a certain degree of science people tend to see 6, 8 and, in some cases, as many as 11-12 lines here.

Monkey stitches

External wormholes
that bring yous to sCience This is the place to go: 

Places

 * 1) I was born in Berkeley, California just in time to be tear-gassed by Ronald Reagan near Peoples Park, but before I could remember anything, my family moved to
 * 2) Buffalo, New York, or at least the suburb of Williamsville, New York, where I grew up.
 * 3) For a year, my family moved to Albuquerque, New Mexico. I was in fifth grade.
 * 4) After school, I spent three hedonistic years in Denver, Colorado, before moving to
 * 5) New York City's DUMBO, Brooklyn neighborhood, before finally moving to Seattle.

More Places
Some places I've enjoyed visiting include
 * 1) Yellowstone National Park
 * 2) Wallowa Mountains
 * 3) Paris
 * 4) Italy, especially Cinque Terre and Rome
 * 5) Vancouver
 * 6) The Canadian Rockies, especially Yoho National Park and Jasper National Park, and, on the way home Garibaldi Provincial Park.
 * 7) Most recently I took a month-long trip, for various reasons to Appalachia, by car from Seattle. The regions I enjoyed the most during the trip include the Flint Hills, The Ozarks, the Hiwassee River area, the Tellico River area, Great Smoky Mountains National Park, the Cumberland Gap, the Big South Fork of the Cumberland River, Savage Gulf, and the Sand Hills (Nebraska).

A species range map image


TESTING for use in species distribution

Blah Blah species are located in places. We (not the royal we, but also the royal we) make maps of them, and here they are.

This should work.

Interests
I've too many to list, but for a start:
 * 1) History
 * 2) Music
 * 3) Echidnas

Print

 * Watson, Hewett C. Cybele Britannica; or, British plants and their geographical relations 4 vols. 1847–59 Topographical botany 1873


 * Bailey, Robert G. (1996) Ecosystem Geography. New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-94586-5
 * Collins, Robert F. "A History of the Daniel Boone National Forest 1770-1970". (Lexington: 1975)
 * Coski, John M. (2005) The Confederate Battle Flag: America's Most Embattled Emble. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01722-6.
 * Duncan, Barbara R. and Riggs, Brett H. Cherokee Heritage Trails Guidebook. University of North Carolina Press: Chapel Hill (2003). ISBN 0-8078-5457-3
 * Gallay, Alan. (2002) The Indian Slave Trade: The Rise of the English Empire in the American South 1670-171. Yale University Press: New York. ISBN 0-300-10193-7
 * Meinig, D.W. (1986). The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History, Volume 1: Atlantic America, 1492-1800. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-03548-9
 * Meinig, D.W. (1993). The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History, Volume 2: Continental America, 1800-1867. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-05658-3
 * Mooney, James. Myths of the Cherokee (1900, repr. 1995)
 * Rediker, Marcus. "Villains of all Nations: Atlantic Pirates in the Golden Age". Beacon Press: Boston (2004).
 * Ricketts, Taylor H., Eric Dinerstein, David M. Olson, Colby J. Loucks et al. (WWF) (1999). Terrestrial Ecoregions of North America: a conservation assessment. Island Press. ISBN 1-55963-722-6.
 * Stewart, George R. (1967) Names on the Land. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
 * Webb, Stephen Saunders, "1676 - The End of American Independence." (New York: 1984).
 * "The Maine Atlas and Gazetteer". 29th ed. Yarmouth, Maine: DeLorme, 2006.

Online

 * USGS maps accessed via Topozone.com.
 * "The Columbia Gazetteer of North America. 2000." Great Pond.
 * The journal of Major John Norton (Toronto : Champlain Society, 1970)

Overview
Zoogeography is the study of the patterns of the past, present, and future distribution of animals (and their attributes) in nature and the processes that regulate these distributions, and it’s the scientific analysis of the patterns of biodiversity regarding time and space. Zoogeography integrates information on the historical and current ecology, genetics, and physiology of organisms and their interaction with environmental processes (continental drift, climate) in regulating geographic distributions of animals. Scientists use descriptive and analytical approaches useful in hypothesis testing in zoogeography and which illustrates the applied aspects of zoogeography (e.g. refuge design in conservation).

Branches of Zoogeography
Zoogeography is often divided into two main branches: Ecological Zoogeography and Historical Zoogeography. The former investigates the role of current day biotic and abiotic interactions in influencing animal distributions; the latter are concerned with historical reconstruction of the origin, dispersal, and extinction of taxa.

Branches of Biology relevant to Zoogeography
It’s part of a more general science known as biogeography. Phytogeographers are concerned with patterns and process in plant distribution. Most of the major questions and kinds of approaches taken to answer such questions are held in common between phyto- and zoogeographers.

Case Study
Green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) on Ascension Island – dispersal or vicariance?

Green turtles live in tropical oceans worldwide. Ascension Island's rookery is located on the mid-Atlantic ridge between Brazil and Liberia near west Africa. Their feeding grounds are around the coastal areas of South America, and their females lay eggs on South American beaches.

With a distance of around 2000km (1242mi) from the main body of the range, how did the turtles establish a colony on Ascension Island that is so isolated?

Dispersal hypothesis: these animals make very long distance migrations of up to 5,000 km (3,106mi) between feeding and nesting areas and dispersed from South America to Ascension Island.

Vicariance hypothesis: aka the "Carr-Coleman" hypothesis after two long term investigators of turtle biology. Hypothesis suggests that ancestors of Ascension Island turtles nested on beaches of islands adjacent to S.A. coast throughout the late Cretaceous (135-65 mya).

Over the last 70 my, these islands have been displaced by "sea-floor spreading" (2 cm/year). This, coupled with the natal homing ability of turtles, resulted in the present colony on Ascension Island.

Q: How can zoogeographic investigation provide a test to distinguish these hypothesis? Dispersal and vicariance hypotheses are part of an age-old divide in zoogeographic inference (more on that later!). What predictions do the two hypotheses make that can be used to distinguish between them by collecting data?

A: One approach was taken by Bowen et al. (1992) who used molecular assays (mitochondrial DNA) to address this problem. They reasoned that the "vicariant hypothesis" implies that the Ascension and S.A. rookeries have been largely isolated over 70 million years and that such long term isolation should result in major genetic differences between the rookeries.

By contrast, the dispersal hypothesis predicts very recent contact between the S.A. and Ascension Island rookeries (perhaps even to the present day) and hence little long term evolutionary isolation and consequently there should be little genetic divergence between the rookeries.

What was the result? In a nutshell, sequence divergence estimates between Ascension Island and S.A. rookeries were VERY low (about 0.2% sequence divergence). Most "haplotypes" were identical (i.e. shared) between the two rookery areas which suggested that the rookeries had only been isolated for only a very short time (less than 1 million years) and that this isolation was incomplete (there was current dispersal between Brazil and Ascension Island rookeries).

The shallow genetic divergence (contrasted with a major split at about 0.7% divergence between Atlantic and Pacific groups of C. mydas) was inconsistent with long term isolation predicted by the vicariance hypothesis. These results, coupled with ecological knowledge of the dispersal capabilities of green turtles strongly suggest that the dispersal hypothesis for the origin of the Ascension Island rookery is correct.

Resources for students of Zoogeography

 * Biology 413: A course outline and collection of Web resources by Dr. Taylor, UBC

Category:Biogeography

es:Zoogeografía hr:Zoogeografija id:Zoogeografi it:Zoogeografia he:זואוגאוגרפיה ka:ზოოგეოგრაფია lt:Zoogeografija pl:Zoogeografia pt:Zoogeografia sk:Zoogeografia zh:动物地理学

The term phytogeography itself suggests a broad meaning. How the term is actually applied by practicing scientists is apparent from peridicals using the term. The American Journal of Botany, a monthly primary research journal, frequently publishes a section titled Systematics and Phytogeography.

Topics covered in the American Journal of Botany Sytematics and Phytogeography section include phylogeography, distribution of genetic variation and, Historical biogeography, and general distribution patterns. Biodiversity patterns are not covered. This illustrates how some people eat monkeys.

Zero Force Evolutionary Law
or ZFEL Collecting some notes to make this page... possible pages to link to Escalation hypothesis

evolutionary arms race

Evolution

Macroevolution

Evolutionary biology

TEXT The Zero Force Evolutionary Law is a proposed biological that predicts an increase in complexity.



CITES Okasha Nature, Huffington Post Ruse article, Biology's first law, Paleobiology paper 2005 Recent article you printed.. my article??

The Zero Force Evolutionary Law (ZFEL) is a proposed biological principle or law that states that there is a tendency for biological complexity to increase over time []. The law was proposed in book titled Biology's First Law[CITATION] by Dan McShea and Robert Brandon at Duke University. The ZFEL makes predictions about a particular kind of complexity, pure complexity. The pure complexity of an organism or ecosystem is the amount of differentiation of parts of that organism or ecosystem. [Pure contrast with what McShea and Brandon describe as colloqial complexity]. Pure complexity can be measured quantitatively or An organism with. Pure complexity does not take into account the functionality of parts or functional integration. Pure complexity is function neutral.

The law predicts that biological complexity will increase in biological systems at different levels

How the ZFEL works. The ZFEL works in the following way. Biological systems, whether organisms, or ecosystems, or genomes, are composed of repeated parts......

The special and general formulations of the ZFEL McShea and Brandon propose two formulations of the ZFEL, a special formulation that predicts in that diversity and complexity will increase under certain circumstances, and a general formulation that predicts a tendency for pure complexity to increase in all biological systems everywhere.

Special formulation: In any evolutionary system in which there is variation and heredity, in the absence of natural selection, other forces, and constraints acting on diversity and complexity, diversity and complexity will increase on average.

General formulation: In any evolutionary system in which there is variation and heredity, there is a tendency for diversity and complexity to increase, one that is always present but may be opposed or augmented by natural selection, other forces, or constraints acting on diversity or complexity.

Examples of the Zero force evolutionary law.

ZFEL predicts a tendency for increases in pure complexity, that is increases in a function neutral complexity. The kind of complexity generated through the ZFEL, pure complexity, is defined as function neutral. That does not mean this kind of complexity is functionless, and this also does not mean that when Natural Selection is operating, making functional parts, that ZFEL is not relevant or operating. In fact the ZFEL can operate through selection. An example using vertebrates illustrates this point (Figure 1).

Ancestral vertebrates, such as fish, would not have such differentiated vertebra because selection for these functions.

Internal Variance Principle The internal variance principle was proposed in 2005 by Dan McShea in a paper in the journal Paleobiology[]. The IVP like the ZFEL predicts that there exists a tendency for the internal parts of an the organism of an individual species to become more differentiated over time. The ZFEL essentially extrapolates the IVP to all levels of biological organization. Thus ecosystems are predicted to have a tendency to increase in pure complexity, through increases in the number or phenotypic divergence species, just as the bodies of individual species are expected to increase through differentiation of internal parts.

EXPAND OR NO FOR THE FIRST DRAFT McShea and Brandon argue is proposed as a unifying principle, and that various phenomena have previously been described which can be understood in retrospect as examples of the ZFEL.

Critical reviews of the ZFEL blah blah blah. The ZFEL has received both positive and negative review from biologists and philosophers of biology.

The ZFEL gives directionality to evolution.

Dominant and recessive alleles
In many cases, genotypic interactions between the two alleles at a locus can be described as dominant or recessive, according to which of the two homozygous genotypes the phenotype of the heterozygote most resembles. Where the heterozygote is indistinguishable from one of the homozygotes, the allele involved is said to be dominant to the other, which is said to be recessive to the former. The degree and pattern of dominance varies among loci. For a further discussion see Dominance (genetics). This type of interaction was first formally described by Gregor Mendel. However, many traits defy this simple categorisation and the phenotypes are modeled by polygenic inheritance.

The term "wild type" allele is sometimes used to describe an allele that is thought to contribute to the typical phenotypic character as seen in "wild" populations of organisms, such as fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster). Such a "wild type" allele was historically regarded as dominant, common, and "normal", in contrast to "mutant" alleles regarded as recessive, rare, and frequently deleterious. It was commonly thought that most individuals were homozygous for the "wild type" allele at most gene loci, and that any alternative 'mutant' allele was found in homozygous form in a small minority of "affected" individuals, often as genetic diseases, and more frequently in heterozygous form in "carriers" for the mutant allele. It is now appreciated that most or all gene loci are highly polymorphic, with multiple alleles, whose frequencies vary from population to population, and that a great deal of genetic variation is hidden in the form of alleles that do not produce obvious phenotypic differences.

Allele and genotype frequencies
The frequency of alleles in a diploid population can be used to predict the frequencies of the corresponding genotypes (see Hardy-Weinberg principle). For a simple model, with two alleles:


 * $$p + q=1 \, $$


 * $$p^2 + 2pq + q^2=1 \,$$

where p is the frequency of one allele and q is the frequency of the alternative allele, which necessarily sum to unity. Then, p2 is the fraction of the population homozygous for the first allele, 2pq is the fraction of heterozygotes, and q2 is the fraction homozygous for the alternative allele. If the first allele is dominant to the second, then the fraction of the population that will show the dominant phenotype is p2 + 2pq, and the fraction with the recessive phenotype is q2.

With three alleles:


 * $$p + q + r = 1 \, $$ and


 * $$p^2 + 2pq + 2pr + q^2 + 2qr + r^2 = 1 \,$$

In the case of multiple alleles at a diploid locus, the number of possible genotypes (G) with a number of alleles (a) is given by the expression:


 * $$G= \frac{a(a+1)}{2} $$

Allelic variation in genetic disorders
A number of genetic disorders are caused when an individual inherits two recessive alleles for a single-gene trait. Recessive genetic disorders include Albinism, Cystic Fibrosis, Galactosemia, Phenylketonuria (PKU), and Tay-Sachs Disease. Other disorders are also due to recessive alleles, but because the gene locus is located on the X chromosome, so that males have only one copy (that is, they are hemizygous), they are more frequent in males than in females. Examples include red-green color blindness and Fragile X syndrome.

Other disorders, such as Huntington disease, occur when an individual inherits only one dominant allele.

References and notes

 * National Geographic Society, Alton Biggs, Lucy Daniel, Edward Ortleb, Peter Rillero, Dinah Zike. "Life Science". New York, Ohio, California, Illinois: Glencoe McGraw-Hill. 2002