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= Body identification = ...

These methods, including anthropometry, analysis of the skin, dental records and genetics, rely on the individuality of each body. Factors such as body size, weight, skin prints, and blood type all act as indicators of identity. Forensic scientists analyse these varying characteristics in their process of identifying of a body.

History
Traditional scientific identification methods developed in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries which allowed forensic scientists to identify a body without formal identification. These methods included dental analysis, anthropometry and fingerprinting. Forensic dentistry was first used in 1776 by Paul Revere, who identified the fallen soldier Joseph Warren by his false teeth (Nola, 2016). Anthropometry was first used in the nineteenth century by Alphonse Bertillon who developed the Bertillon System based on physical measurements. His findings were soon overtaken by the method of fingerprinting, which proved to be more accurate (Frazer, 1909).

As technology and research advanced, meticulous scientific identification techniques were developed in the late twentieth century. These methods included the analysis of the skin’s various prints and DNA profiling. Scientists realised that there was more to the skin than just fingerprints, and that the use of palm and ear prints could also assist in the identification process (Gowland & Thompson, 2017). Forensic DNA has become extremely prominent in the forensic identification field. Alec Jeffreys was the first forensic scientist to use DNA analysis for the purpose of body identification in 1984 (Jeffreys, 2013).

Military
In many cases, people who have died while serving in military branches remain unidentified. This is due to the destructive nature of their death and that remains can go undiscovered for a long period of time, resulting in the deterioration of their physical exterior.

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Anthropometry
Anthropometry involves examining the size, weight and dimensions of a body (Kanchan & Krishan, 2011). The physical aspects of the body contribute to its identification in forensic science by allowing for possible identification before any further scientific procedures take place.

Alphonse Bertillon
Alphonse Bertillon's system of identifying a body has three dimensions; anthropometric information, descriptive information and the description of particular marks (Bertillon & Muller, 1887).

Anthropometric information
Anthropometric information incorporates the measurement of body parts, including the head, fingers, feet and arms. ''This process involves the use a variety of tools. Caliper-copmasses measures the dimensions of the head. Sliding compasses measure the "foot, forearm, and middle and little fingers." Small sliding compasses measure the ear. Vertical measure for height. Horizontal measure for wingspan.'' (Bertillon & Muller, 1887).

Descriptive information
Descriptive information includes aspects such as eye colour, hair colour and the structure of the nose. ''It is common to find two individuals who have the same or anthropometric and descriptive information. Finding peculiarities in the human body, such as particular marks, allows forensic scientists to more accurately identify an individual.'' (Bertillon & Muller, 1887).

Description of particular marks
The description of particular marks involves the assessment of unique marks on the body, such as scars and birthmarks (Bertillon & Muller, 1887). The marks of an individual are characterised by its "nature, direction, dimensions and situation." (Bertillon & Muller, 1887).

Influences on anthropometry
The process of anthropometry can be impacted by a variety of factors that influence the perception of a body, such as sex and gender. The determination of sex is one of the first steps in identifying an individual (Kanchan & Krishan, 2011). The physical differences between the standard male and female body acts as an indicator of identity in the forensic field. Particular body parts, such as an individual's reproductive organs and the size of their breasts, are an indicator of sex (Gowland & Thompson, 2017). Other more socially constructed ideas of gender, such as the length of one’s hair and the height of an individual also influence the process of body identification. These assumptions about gender are more complicated in our contemporary society, where intersex and transgender individuals are becoming increasingly common (Gowland & Thompson, 2017).

Skin
The skin provides forensic scientists with a variety of ways to identify a body.

Skin prints
The skin has a variety of prints that are unique to the individual. Fingerprints are the most common form of print analysis in the process of body identification. The analysis of palm prints is similar to that of fingerprints. However, they also provide information on the dominant hand and age of the individual, which are both key indicators of identity. Ear prints can also be assessed in the process of body identification (Gowland & Thompson, 2017). The accuracy of skin prints can be influenced by a variety of external factors, such as temperature, humidity, time and “natural skin shedding.” (Sampson & Sampson, 2015) These components are considered when using skin prints as a form of identification. If there is any doubt, further scientific research will take place (Churchill & Churchill, 1863).

Skin defects
The skin can have various defects, including scars and birthmarks, that can help identify a body (Gowland & Thompson, 2017).

Age
The deterioration of skin over time is physically obvious to the eye. A young and fit individual typically has firm and thick skin. However, when individuals age, particularly into their 60s and 70s, they experience sagging and thinning of the skin. The appearance of one’s skin can be an indicator of their age, which is a significant characteristic of a person’s identity (Gowland & Thompson, 2017).

Gender
Gender also affects the perception of one's skin. The common cultural and social constructs that influence a forensic scientist’s determination of gender are the expectations of facial and body hair and the length of one’s nails (Gowland & Thompson, 2017).

Race
An individual's race can also act as an indicator of identity, with the visual identifier of one’s skin colour (Gowland & Thompson, 2017).

Dental
Dental examination is a method of body identification that involves the comparison of antemortem and postmortem dental records, such as radiographs and photographs. The jaw is analysed to detect any peculiarities in the teeth or any diseases (Foran & Berman, 2014). In the scenario where skin prints are unable to assist in the process of identification, dental examination can be used. The Forensic Dentistry and Anthropology Center of the Dental Faculty of Piracicaba analysed radiographs and dental records of a "surgically implanted orthopedic plate" (Matoso, Benedicto, de Lima, Prado, Daruge & Daruge, 2013) to identify a burned body.

Genetics
Alec Jeffreys is known as the "founding father of DNA identification” (Jeffreys, 2013). He invented DNA fingerprinting to help identify bodies in the 1980s. Since then, various techniques to identify microRNA markers in bodily fluids have developed due to the advances in forensic science. DNA analysis involves the comparison of DNA profiles and DNA samples. Testing methods include analysing the impact of time and sensitivity on the appearance of microRNAs and determining how well they can be detected in different bodily fluids (Zubakov, Boersma, Choi, van Kuijk, Wiemer, & Kayser, 2010). The fluids that are most commonly used in the process of DNA identification are menstrual blood, venous blood, semen, saliva and vaginal secretion (Choi, Shin, Yang, & Lee, 2013).