User:Victoriaearle/Early Netherlandish painting sandbox


 * Reading material - Charterhouse of Bruges

Religious paintings 1500-50

 * Ainsworth, Maryan Ainsworth. "Religious Painting from 1500 to 1550". Maryan Ainsworth, et. al. (eds.) From van Eyck to Bruegel: Early Netherlandish Painting in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. (1998). Metropolitan Museum, New York. ISBN 0-87099-871-4 (23-38)


 * As many of 150 Sorrows of Our Lady identified in a contemporary pamphlet and the scenes became popular subjects for paintings and it was a time when new and novel iconography was eschewed. Instead greater emphasis put on devotional and meditative nature of the works "which prompted artists to transform traditional themes into emotionally gripping invitations to meditations and spiritual visions." 320-321
 * Narrative cycles - secular, mythological - became popular, and the mythological blended with the biblical - ie. Gossart 322
 * Diptychs began to emphasize more human aspects of Christ, ie. David's many versions and copies. 322
 * Diptychs showed Christ's birth and death - inviting viewer to imagine the intervening scenes 322
 * Landscapes became more prevalent and some triptych wings showed only landscape scenes – a way to have the viewer imagine themself on a pilgrimage. 323
 * Reform movement too inspired change: Christ shown in a more humanistic aspect, ie. van Cleve's Last Judgement w/out the presence of Mary. Christ became more approachable. 325
 * Pieter Aertsen's work was moralistic, Deeds of Christian Charity, or the biblical was relegated to the background, i.e., Egg dance 326-7

Bruegel

 * Orenstein, Nadine. "Pieter Bruegel the Elder". Maryan Ainsworth, et. al. (eds.) From van Eyck to Bruegel: Early Netherlandish Painting in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. (1998). Metropolitan Museum, New York. ISBN 0-87099-871-4 (39-61)
 * Bruegel's first landscape depictions of nature were in the form of prints (Large Landscapes) [etchings I think] and were characterised by small foreground figures with vast landscape scenes receding into the distant background. 379
 * In comparison to Patinir, his landscapes are more realistic and naturalistic (some scenes based on his travels in the Alps) 379
 * He found a more versatile medium in painting than in etchings & used paint to capture weather, (i.e, sun, snow, gloomy etc) 381
 * His "Months" showing landscapes and weather were based on months from illuminated manuscripts - brought a larger scale to a traditionally smaller format 382
 * Moralistic images shown in proverb paintings (The Land of Cockaigne and Netherlandish Proverbs), then popular, and in these and others Bruegel showed a full depiction of peasant life, which he became famous for 382
 * Most of Bruegel's patrons are unknown; prob upper class, wealthy, varied religious and political backgrounds. Scholars uncertain how they would have reacted to Bruegel's peasant scenes. A known patron was counselor to Margaret, Duchess of Parma, regent of the Netherlands, another was humanist Abraham Ortelius – the two certainly held strongly different beliefs 385
 * Bruegel is the flowering of naturalism, humanism, almost modern perspective with perhap mocking of religious subjects, glorification of lower classes, national pride. 384

Italy

 * Christiansen, Keith. "The View from Italy". Maryan Ainsworth, et. al. (eds.) From van Eyck to Bruegel: Early Netherlandish Painting in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. (1998). Metropolitan Museum, New York. ISBN 0-87099-871-4 (23-38)
 * Duke of Milan sent a painter to study with van der Weyden to learn portraiture and set a precedent other dukes followed. 41
 * Genoese traders in Bruges gained appreciation for northern artists & art & brought it (appreciation and art) south with them 44
 * Memling had a v strong Italian client base [mentioned above too] 45
 * Bartolomeo Facio wrote biographies of both Jve and RvdW - showing a strong critical appreciation, especially in the realism/naturalism & Roger's ability to express/evoke emotion 47-8
 * Cyriac of Ancona too wrote critical essays about northern art - in particular JvE & RvdW 47-48
 * Because Italian nobility/princes collected Netherlandish paintings, Italian painters began to emulate landscapes, imagery, iconography and techniques. I.e, pearls adorning eccelesiastical vestment in Fra Angelico (v hard to see, but the carpet and virgin's throne is van Eyckian) w/ Meiss suggesting the Lucca Madonna was a "point of reference" for Italian painters. 49
 * Filippino Lippi copied Hugo van der Goes' Portinari Altarpiece, brought to Florence in 1483 (in the article but needs cite) 49
 * Botticelli copied van Eyck's landscapes (Adoration of the Magi (Botticelli) and Bellini his  St Jerome 51
 * The landscapes tend to be jarring in the Italian painting, perhaps added on the whim of the patron, and not until the more fantastic landscapes of Patinir does the Italian style of mannerism begin to take better shape 53
 * Memling had a significant and often overlooked influence on Italian painting - in part because so many of his patrons were Italian, he melded northern style with what his Italian patron demanded of him, particularly in his portraits. 55
 * His devotional paintings too (i.e, Virgin and Child with two angels ) melded well and perhaps paved the way for a more serene "harmonious" "tranquil" style the Italian painters sought 57

15th century art market & patronage

 * Ainsworth, Maryan Ainsworth. "The Business of Art: Patrons, Clients and Art Markets". Maryann Ainsworth, et. al.(eds.) From van Eyck to Bruegel: Early Netherlandish Painting in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. (1998). Metropolitan Museum, New York. ISBN 0-87099-871-4 (23-38)


 * Willem de Clugny commissioned van der Weyden's large Annunciation perhaps on competition w/ Rolin > these large panels not meant for private devotion but to be shown (show off!) and as symbols of wealth & power. 28
 * Philip the Good patron of Carthusians and from them comes the JvE Virgin and Child with Saints Barbara and Elizabeth and Jan Vos (??) (now in New York) prob commissioned by Philip for the monastery 28
 * Workshops: van der Weyden's Nativity Altarpiece at the Cloisters is example of a work pieced together b/c similarity w/ Nativity Triptych (???) in Berlin. Master made the drawings and these were used for multiple sets of panels. 30 [ … St Columba similar? ]] why no nativity??
 * Bouts painted Justice for Emperor Otto III, van der Weyden Justice of Trajan and Herkinbald, David Justice of Cambyses as municipal commissions but such were less common, paid little and attributions are difficult. 30
 * These types of works (devotional panels) were often made from a template w/ the donor individualized & maybe a specific individualized panel added, eg, Master of the Saint Ursula Legend added coat of arms to his Virgin and Child > adding coat of arms was another way to individualize a mass produced (or nearly mass produced) piece & sell to a donor - can also be seen in van der Weyden's Saint Luke Drawing the Virgin (Boston) which consists of an original and variations 31
 * Documentation (wills) show that workshops kept patterns and prepainted panels to be sold as is 32
 * Many of the donors cannot be identified and in most cases because the pieces have been separated it's impossible to tell why they were commissioned or where they were meant to be placed. Larger pieces almost always in churches or monasteries. 32
 * By 16th century pieces were commissioned as decorations for residences 32
 * Because of tight guild controls and competition among panel painters, the painters had to secure commissions by catering directly to the interests of a specific client base - found in the large foreign populations. Many (50%) of Christus' commissions were for Italian clients and Ainsworth claims he "adjusted his style to suit them". 34
 * Christus joined the Confraternity of Our Lady of the Snow and the Confraternity of the Dry Tree to find clients and commissions - members included Isabella of Portugal, most of the leading Burgundian nobles, the leading upper-class families and the leading foreign traders. 34
 * Like Christus, most of Memling's commissions were from Italians and Ainsworth said he "cornered the market in portraiture" - he altered his style to blend Italian and northern painting styles 34
 * By early 1500s David, like Christus had, joined Confraternity of Dry Tree, but the art market was by then greatly reduced in Bruges and so he joined the Antwerp guild too – shortly after he received commission for a polyptych (panels in various museums now) [which??] but the documentation is lost so nothing is known about who commissioned the piece. 35
 * Like Christus, David "conflated" Italian and northern styles to attract foreign buyers 35-36
 * The late 1400s to early 1500 saw a decline in private commissions, as the number of works sold at fairs increased, and Antwerp supplanted Bruges in importance. 36


 * Campbell


 * The art market was the Burgundian court - favored tapestries and metalwork for which better records exist. Very few records for paintings. 188-189
 * Tapestries were "favored form of wall decorations" and Burgundian collections of tapestries unrivaled 189
 * Religious paintings commissioned too for churches, hospitals, convents, palaces, sometimes commissioned by private donors or wealthy clerics. Civic buildings decorated w/ scenes from Last Judgement 189
 * Records show middleclass merchants, burghers, commissioned paintings, e.g. an Brussels official (Cornelis Havelos) who owned 10 religious paintings, one a triptych of Virgin & Child showing himself as donor. 189
 * Huge demand all over Europe for Netherlandish tapestries (5% of Belgian exports by 1550s) 190
 * Demand but smaller trade in detached single miniatures (b/c of guild laws) 190
 * A master painter could make a profit when apprentices produced work (mass produced) 191
 * When a work commissioned a contract was drawn up and registered at civic court w/ description of the work, (gives example of a carving commissioned by an abbess) 192
 * Possible and even probable that workshops collaborated, creating specialization but evidence is very scanty 198

Pacht

 * Haloes & beams of light as haloes > two pages. Do we need it? 15 & 16
 * Three pages about identification of Robert Campin 16 -19
 * Rogier de la Pasture (van der Weyden) was thought to have painted Campin's works (van der Weyden French but worked in the Burgundian region) > then became a notname Master of Flemalle then Campin 17 [come back to this]

Diptychs

 * Borchert
 * Early Netherlandish diptychs
 * "Diptych = "formal framework for iconic as well as narrative representations" 174
 * Half lengths, devotional pieces, etc. Evolution of portraits parallel w/ diptychs - around (1430s or so) and van der weyden synthesized the use of portrait pendants diptychs to combine w/ religious scenes - a format seen in manuscript painting. 179
 * The survival of the van Eyck's Madonna in the Church panel indicates either the importance of the cult of the Virgin being depicted or the now lost donor depiction 179
 * Donor wings were often simply replaced 181
 * By the second half of the century, the religious scene was kept in stock and simply matched to the commissioned donor panel 181
 * Borchert calls it an additive process/semi-standardization. Even during that time, diptychs were dismantled and reassembled making attribution particularly difficult without tech. exam. 181-182
 * Very few diptychs survived as originally made > exceptions are those in hospices and princely collections (he gives a few examples) 182
 * Hulin de Loo took photographs of diptychs and at that point panels that may have been painted as a set (??) began to be identified and Panofsky was able to establish that van der Weyden defined the half length devotional portrait 182

Illustrated mss

 * Kren
 * Kren
 * Many books still unfinished at Philip's death = hundreds of pages of illustrations to be painted - Charles had them finished 7
 * "Philip's patronage of art and culture, including the library of more than seven hundred volumes, made him a model Renaissance prince". 7
 * "The Duke's library was an expression of the man as a Christian prince, and an embodiment of the state – his politics and authority, his learning and piety". 8
 * His patronage "transformed" the manuscript industry in the Lowlands during his lifetime to one that dominated Europe for several generations. [CP here!] 8
 * Philip's library at first b/c of inheritance and gifts > he came to patronage late in life and not until after the 1440s commissioned 60 books, some of which were unfinished at his death 17
 * After his death, Isabel and then Charles continued the tradition of book collecting/patronage 18
 * Much about Lieven van Lathem 18-21
 * The tradition passed from Charles to his daughter Mary of Burgundy, her husband Maximilian I, and Charles' wife Margaret of York. 20
 * Burgundian commissions "had an extraordinary impact on the book trade" in the Low Countries "and dramatically raising the quality of book production over all" 21
 * Margaret of York's interest in books probably influenced her brother Edward IV (he collected Flemish manuscripts) and hence to England 23
 * Edward's book collection - almost all Flemish - went on the form the beginning of the English Royal Library and the British Library. 24
 * Philip the Good's collection formed the foundation for the Royal Library of Belgium 24 [CP again!]

Tapestries

 * Overview from Met
 * Freeman
 * Medieval princes "clothed" their rooms in costly garments 1 [CP!]
 * Peace Treaty of Arras in 1435 was draped all around (tout autour) w/ tapestries showing Battle and Overthrow of People of Liege" 1
 * At Charles the Bold & Margaret of York's wedding the room "was hung above with draperies of wool, blue and white, and on the sides was tapestried with a rich tapestry woven with the history of Jason and the Golden Fleece". 1
 * Rooms were hung from ceiling to floor w/ tapestries and some rooms named after a tapestry set, i.e. Philip the Bold had an entire chamber filled with white tapestries showing scenes from The Romance of the Rose. 1
 * Tapestries usually woven for a specific chamber but then frequently moved to another castle, chateau, given as a gift, or even perhaps eventually cut and divided to use as bed hangings, etc. 4

Rediscovery and scholarship

 * Chapuis, Julien. "Early Netherlandish Painting: Shifting Perspectives". Maryann Ainsworth, et. al.(eds.) From van Eyck to Bruegel: Early Netherlandish Painting in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. (1998). Metropolitan Museum, New York. ISBN 0-87099-871-4 (3-22)


 * As the collections were assembled, archivists began to study and discern differences. Vasari's notes (?) were at that time found, studied, and his mention of two Rogers (of Bruges and of Brussels) were finally determined to mean van der Weyden 8
 *  James Weale was important archivist of the period. He was a Catholic convert interested in Christian symbolism and liturgy who went to live in Bruges for 25 years where he searched the archives meticulously and began to publish results: he wrote the first biographies of Memling, Petrus Christus, Jan Provost, Adriaen Isenbrandt, published a monograph on David, and then in 1908 the van Eyck book that "remains an essential research tool because of the original documents it contains." 8
 * '''Weale became the force behind the 1902 Bruges exhibition; because Bruges didn't want paintings to be moved it was held there, museums sent photographs of their pieces and some pieces were borrowed from private collectors. Weale, by then considered the leading expert on Netherlandish art, wrote the catalogue for the exhibition. 9
 * Weale disregarded the nationalistic aspect and instead focused on the religious aspects of the art - he considered the "devotional element as an essential characteristic of Flemish painting" '''9
 * Bruges exhibition influenced a generation of art historians beginning w/ Georges Hulin de Loo who published a critical catalogue of the pieces that year (1902) which in some aspects differed from Weale's who had to follow the strictures of the organizing committee and follow attributions as provided by lenders - Hulin de Loo rejected a number of JvE attributions. Friedlander, too, visited the exhibition and like Waagen before him had an "exceptional eye" & continued to collect for Berlin (where he was employed) - for the next 50 years he worked on connoisseurship and attributions of ENA > published 14 volumes "single most important piece of scholarship on Flemish paintings of fifteenth and sixteenth centuries". 9
 * Huizinga had described Flemish painting as showing "an immediate affection for the miracle of all things" (find this in Huizinga) Panofsky saw the art as the "vehicle" for religious symbolism which became the focus of scholarship for the next two generations. 11
 * Importance of disguised symbolism has recently been questioned by current generation of scholars 12
 * Harbison believes the viewer should see the works as objects of devotion with a "prayer book mentality" and that in the period middle class burghers had the means and the inclination to commission devotional objects and images as an aid to devotion, particularly when paired w/ text 12
 * A vision was a primary religious goal enacted in donor paintings 12
 * James Marrow in 1986 said the painting should be considered not for the disguised symbolism but the how the viewer experiences it; he believes the pieces were painted to elicit specific viewer responses/reactions > the emotions seen in the figures' faces are meant to evoke a similar emotion in the viewer. 12
 * Recent scholarship looks at how the works engage viewers 12
 * Ghent > 1940 to Pau in France to kept safe; Germans looted and moved to Newschwanstein in 1942; discovered by 3rd American Army 1945. In 1950 and international team of art historians (including Panofsky) worked on the restoration, a report of which was published in 1953 the same year Panofsky published Early Netherlandish Painting. 13 [add to Ghent]
 * Section of the Ghent report called "Visual strategies of Flemish painters" - the painters made works that created an "active dialogue" with the viewer. Naturalism was a device to make the world as real as possible for the viewer 15
 * Digression: in 1449 Italian Cyriac of Ancona described a now lost van der Weyden w/ phrases such as "faces come alive" "people living" etc. Considered vdW second to JvE. Philip the Good chastised accountants for failing to pay JvW whom he thought as "unequaled" as an artist (long description of the Crucifixion !! but nothing new)  15


 * Silver
 * North art "remains stubbornly rooted in a broader, more popular notion of art with public utility" (per Huizinga too) 519
 * Northern art shows less reverence for the individual in comparison to Italian art, and less concept of originality > i.e the many copies of van Eyck and van der Weyden's work 520
 * The work itself was of greater importance than the person who created it. 519
 * Much of the scholarly criticism looks at individual contributions and neglects the collaborative nature: i.e, processes such as book making and tapestry making 521
 * Printmaking became popular after the Gutenberg press and only Durer gave attention to printmaking (and to a lesser degree the lesser studied Lucas van Leyden) 521
 * The context of where the art was placed was important but has received comparatively little study: i.e, church vs. sectarian art; civil vs. court art. 522
 * The dominance of religion in the daily life must be taken into consideration as well as the context of the pieces 522
 * Important to understand religious practices such as directed prayer, the importance of specific images and subjects, and v. important to consider the importance of secular donors, patrons and commissioners. 523


 * Deam
 * Early 1900s was called ecole de Bruges but the 1902 exhibition was called primitifs flamands which caught on as a name after 1902 13
 * JvE and Hubert were considered to be German in 1900s (Hulin de Loo "rescued" them) 15
 * In 1916 Friedlander wrote: "in the fifteenth century the Netherlands were more of an entity with a uniform culture and the Germanic essence, blended it is true with Latin elements from France and Burgundy, flowed through the entire land." 18
 * Friedlander - German vs French = JvE vs RvdW 19
 * After WWI Friedlander reassessed and called it "Netherlandish art" - the books "Early Netherlandish Painting" (published 1924-1937) 21

Beaune Altarpiece

 * June
 * Jacobs
 * Jacobs, Lynn. "The Inverted "T"-Shape in Early Netherlandish Altarpieces: Studies in the Relation between Painting and Sculpture". Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte, Volume 54, No. 1, 1991  >> saved citations on Jstor.


 * The Ghent altarpiece had an elaborate frame & is the only T shaped netherlandish altarpiece to receive study 33
 * Netherlandish retables were distinctively t-shaped or !t-shaped (upside down) >> means the elongated central panel 34
 * Seen in 15th & 16th cent. pieces & visible when panels were closed 35
 * Painters used upside t-shape less frequently but it was important for iconography: created an emphasis on central panel which a row of panels couldn't achieve; focused attn on a key or central figure; provided space for a narrative, crosses, celestial figures, skies above, etc; 36
 * Reflects the shape of a Gothic church w/ raised nave (seen in RvdW Seven Sacraments) 37
 * Not used in Dresden triptych 41
 * T-shape allowed liturgical functions in front of the raised panel; water, incense, etc. 45
 * T-shape reflects/mimics church architecture 46
 * Church = heaven = raised panel 47 & see note 26
 * Adds to portability of the piece but painters didn't use it because narratives worked better and more naturalistically w/ adjacent panels of the same shape 53
 * RvdW's Deposition famous use of T-shape 59
 * Beaune > T-shape "contributed to anti-spatial character"; allows linear rhythms to be linked across the surface; allows arrangements of figures in lower panels; allows for gilding in upper raised panels; in Beaune RvdW used old fashioned traditional mode High Gothic to create an archaic presentation 60
 * Beaune was an archaic style, painted in Brussels, shipped to Beaune 60
 * The heavenly court is elevated; earth and entrances to heaven & hell on the lower panels. Christ above signifies "reign of Heaven is about to begin" and so RvdW used the shape to "assert" the iconography of the altarpiece. 61

tfa notes

 * don't forget about this, try to find Lane

Upton

 * Upton >> guiding principle in the Washington Nativity is the devotional sentiment that "man is offered a second chance which comes to the turbulent world in utter stillness and silence". 51
 * Date = 1445-1455 53
 * Stoop = dark gray and red blocks of stone (flagstone) 54
 * "For the fifteenth-century worshiper, kneeling before the altarpiece, this perspective would have heightened the sense of physical relationship between the actual and ideal act of worship. In the Washington Nativity Christus has merged the compelling naturalism and actuality of the ars nova with a frontal, hieractic image of an icon project toward the viewer". 55
 * Light shines into the shed, the implied inner chapel; grisaille casts shadows emphasizing "its function as a diaphragm between real and illusory space". 57
 * Shadows in the background = dawn of a new day 57
 * Annunciation not yet happened; "Christus has portrayed the first private instant, endlessly renewed, of recognition by Mary, Joseph and the angels of the newborn Christ." 58
 * Scholarship = minimal 58
 * St Bridget section >> re-read again 59
 * This painting is more hieratic 59
 * Iconography juxtaposes Old Testament w/ New 61
 * Arch depicts scenes from Genesis 61
 * Adam & Eve figures, cover themselves in embarrassment; Eve holds the apple from the tree of knowledge; they = mankind before redemption; they represent original sin 62
 * Cain sentenced to live in the land of Nod, unredeemed; failure = divine retribution > until Christ's birth 64
 * Medieval viewer moves from Old Test. images to the New Test images. The arch is a gate to the new order "under Grace" 65
 * Two scenes at the top/keystone = Cain/Abel sacrifice to God = signal to viewer that the new order = sacrifice newly born Christ lying directly below 65
 * The viewer is reminded that Abel remained in God's favor; Cain did not. The worshiper must recognize Christ or be left outside the Church 65
 * Mary, Joseph and angels worship the infant Christ 66
 * The shed "becomes the altar of the first mass" >> compare w/ Portinari Altarpiece (Hugo van der Goes) 67
 * Angels and vestments (but not chasuble) 68
 * Read in the context of the first mass the iconography becomes clear 68
 * Four men in back seem mysterious yet are important: they must obey God (consequences reflected in arch); symbolize the viewer; two groups >> one blue, one red. Left blue is listening; right blue is looking; red waits for a response. Red looks away. Common medieval construct of "I" and "they" >> blue men = individual seeing/hearing; red men = all of humanity seeing and hearing 69
 * Yet, these men don't seem to see or hear anything >> warning to viewer to see and to hear and understand the vision in the holy space >> recognition/obedience 69
 * Rocks at door = sin (Genesis 4:7) 70
 * Rocks = another warning > divest sin to achieve salvation 71
 * Joseph's pattens >> reminder of Moses (Old Testament) who removed shoes & the bush is a reminder of the burning bush 71
 * Joseph in New Testament assumes Moses' duties in Old >> protector; law bringer 71
 * New shoots >> represent new life sprouting; burning bush; branch of Levi >> all popular well-known allusions in the medieval world 72
 * 6th archivolt group might be Seth and legend of the oil of mercy (quest for a branch) (medieval hero), in the shoot Christus "has given expression to the legend" 77

Ainsworth

 * Ainsworth, Maryan. Petrus Christus. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art (1994). ISBN 978-0-8109-6482-2
 * "The Washington Nativity is one of Christus's richest and most complex devotional images, demonstrating a masterful integration of composition and color in what is a an unusually large work for the artist." 158
 * "The message of the painting quietly emerges from the a strict, perspectively correct space constructed to engage the viewer." 158
 * The solemn tone deviates from the joyous depictions according to St Bridget 158
 * The emphasis is less on the narrative and more on the meaning of Christ's birth 158
 * "Of all the representations of the Nativity in Christus's oeuvre, the one in Washington most clearly signifies the theme of sacrifice." 158
 * The Berlin ''Nativity" (find this!) and the other more closely follow St Bridget's account 158
 * Speculations re date rely on scholarly interpretation of style and mostly on Rogerian influence 158
 * 1440s date relies on influences from RvdW's St John Altarpiece and Altarpiece of the Virgin & Bouts's Altarpiece of the Virgin 160
 * These date to mid-1440s and seem to have provided a model/template Christus followed 160
 * Similarities to Bouts' altarpiece include chatting shepherds, shape of the disintegrating shed, angels' clothing which Ainsworth says "anticipate Christus's treatment." 160
 * BUT - Ainsworth says the Wash Nativity far surpasses Bouts' work with the cause/effect of sins shown on the outside absolved on the inside whereas RvdW & Bouts "merely expand the main narrative". 160
 * Use of space = late in his career. The horizontal / vertical axis occurs at the level of the main figures' heads. These orthogonal lines were sketched in the underpainting, visible with X-radiogragraph as a series of lines 161
 * Lots of very technical stuff re vanishing points and so on >> re-read later 161
 * In the underdrawing Mary's gown can be seen extending to the left of the angels but it wasn't painted so 161

Gellman

 * Christus interested in lighting and optical phenomena. 147
 * He combined elements from JVE and RvdW but in the Nativity "the use of light and shade on the heads of the shepherds who lean over the stone wall has no counterpoint has no counterpoint in previous art." 147
 * Man 2nd from right (the seeing man): half his head is in shade; half in light, "resulting in a bold and effective indication" of an exterior source of light. 147

Misc
Review by: Jos Koldeweij Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art, Vol. 23, No. 4 (1995), pp. 268-273 Published by: Stichting voor Nederlandse Kunsthistorische Publicaties Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3780799.
 * Petrus Christus: Renaissance Master of Bruges by Maryan W. Ainsworth
 * Mentions that the gold paten was a later addition and so don't use it as evidence that Christus meant it to = mass/eucharist 272
 * Published in 1995 >> says the haloes haven't been removed yet from Nativity >> inconsistent w/ other sources I think 273
 * Ainsworth, Maryan. "Intentional Alterations of Early Netherlandish Paintings". The Metropolitan Museum of Art Journal. Volume 40, 2005
 * Friedlander questioned the haloes in Christus's in 1916. Haloes rarely used in Netherlandish art but more common in Italian paintings of the period to indicate holy figures. The haloes were examined and found to be a later addition; before the 1994 exhibition haloes were removed from Christus' Portrrait of a Carthusian and A Goldsmith in his Shop. 51 (Nativity??)


 * Richter, G.M. "The New National Gallery in Washington". Burlington Magazine. Vol. 78, no. 549. (June 1941) http://www.jstor.org/stable/868091
 * Mellon planned to donate his art collection to a "national gallery" as early as the 1920s when he moved from Pgh to Wash; arch hired 1936, finished 1940. Mellon died; architect died 24 hrs later . On opening the gallery, Nativity was one of the 126 paintings Mellon donated from personal collection. Now in the Mellon Collection. 174-178


 * Campbell
 * Says the haloes were removed before the 1994 exhibition (and the paten too). 639

Pagagnotti Triptych

 * Cranes/St John
 * Cranes/St Lawrence


 * Ainsworth, Maryan Ainsworth. "The Business of Art: Patrons, Clients and Art Markets". Maryann Ainsworth, et. al.(eds.) From van Eyck to Bruegel: Early Netherlandish Painting in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. (1998). Metropolitan Museum, New York. ISBN 0-87099-871-4 (23-38)


 * Memling received many commissions from the Italian community in Bruges, particularly for portraits such as his Portrait of Tommaso Portinari and his wife Maria. To appeal to his foreign clients Memling introduced Italianate motifs to his Northern style, blending the two, adding elements such as elaborate and fancy swagging hanging from the canopies of honor and the introduction of cherubs (putti) in some of his depictions or the Virgin and Child enthroned. (Ainsworth, 1998, 34-35)


 * Christiansen, Keith. "The View from Italy". Maryan Ainsworth, et. al. (eds.) From van Eyck to Bruegel: Early Netherlandish Painting in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. (1998). Metropolitan Museum, New York. ISBN 0-87099-871-4 (23-38)
 * Art from Burgundian Netherlands in vogue and sought after in Italian courts 40


 * Duke of Milan sent a painter to study with van der Weyden to learn portraiture and set a precedent other dukes followed. 41
 * Strong commercial ties between Bruges and Italy >> Medici bankers etc. 43
 * Genoese traders in Bruges gained appreciation for northern artists & art & brought it (appreciation and art) south with them 44


 * Large percentage of Netherlandish painting sold to Italy went to the Medici - often via middlemen Tani & Portinari at the Bruges branch of Medici bank - but not all, i.e Portinari van der Goes’ (‘’Portinari Altarpiece’’) & Pagagnotti. 44


 * Memling had a v strong Italian client base [mentioned above too] 45


 * Because Italian nobility/princes collected Netherlandish paintings, Italian painters began to emulate landscapes, imagery, iconography and techniques. 49
 * Filippino Lippi copied Hugo van der Goes' Portinari Altarpiece, brought to Florence in 1483 49


 * The landscapes tend to be jarring in the Italian painting, perhaps added on the whim of the patron 53


 * Memling had a significant and often overlooked influence on Italian painting - in part because so many of his patrons were Italian, he melded northern style with what his Italian patron demanded of him, particularly in his portraits. 55
 * His devotional paintings too (i.e, Virgin and Child with two angels ) melded well and perhaps paved the way for a more serene "harmonious" "tranquil" style the Italian painters sought 57


 * Memling quoted extensively by Florentine artists, i.e Fra Bartolomeo’s Madonna and Child with a young St John the Baptist = direct quote from Pagagnotti triptych 56-57 File:Fra bartolomeo, madonna col bambino e san giovannino, 1497.JPG File:Fra bartolomeo, madonna col bambino e san giovannino.jpg


 * Ainsworth


 * “Saint Paul with Paulo Pagagnotti; Christ appearing to his Mother” by the Master of the Legend of St. Ursula (also divided/separated and newly identified) was commissioned by merchant Paulo Pagagnotti, perhaps in Bruges, Ainsworth says late 1480s. It’s possible he ordered his uncle’s painting at the same time. Ainsworth dates triptych after 1484. Uncle = “learned Domincan Benedetto Pagagnotti” elected Bishop of Vaison. 122


 * Or a Medici agent may have ordered it 122


 * Benedetto Pagagnotti moved to Maria Nuova; painting there until wings?? transferred to Uffizi in 1852 122-124


 * Interior = “extraordinarily beautiful and refined interior panels” 174


 * Benedetto Pagagnotti seems to have chosen the cranes as play on the Greek word for bishop. 174


 * Ainsworth believes the exteriors share “emblematic character” of “Young woman with a pink” and “Two Horses and a monkey in a landscape” - very weak execution, probably by workshop members. 174


 * Ainsworth speculates that the generic landscape in the wings, similar to Young Woman with a Pink, was by a member of the workshop. 175


 * Nuttall


 * Small devotional triptych - Nuttall 25


 * Considered one the earliest Netherlandish painting to employ putti and garlands associated with Italian sculpture (see list of other painting but can’t identify them)- Nuttall, 25


 * Painted for Dominican Benedetto Pagagnotti, leading churchman in Florence. 25


 * Dating c. 1480 based on mill in background, copied by Italian painters, the first by Filipino Lippi c 1482. 25


 * Netherlandish devotional paintings much in vogue in Italy; Pagagnotti probably placed commission through a middleman, perhaps relative Paulo Pagagnotti who is documented visiting Bruges 25


 * Memling added Italian flourishes of garlands and putti either at behest of patron to please him; additional Italianate motifs include include arch carvings > Cain slaying Abel, Samson & the lion painted to resemble gilded sculptures and decorative detail of the arch 25


 * Pair of tondo in Portinari’s Bruges home Bladelinhof include lions head and putti >> prob commissioned c. 1469 >> Memling would have been familiar 25 (see pics of Bladelinhof) plus much more about this


 * Virgin and Child sit enthroned under ornate rounded arch - outer rim has all’antica motif of half-rosettes 29. See Nat gallery for all’antica definition


 * Wings have gothic arches bordered w/ palmettes 29


 * Corner columns supporting Cain/Abel & Samson on capitals exhibit all’antica motifs 29


 * Red marble columns (center & wings) are Netherlandish motif found from van Eyck onward; ornate gold capitals and bases seem to be Memling’s innovation, 29


 * Center panel columns have Gothic vegetal motif 30


 * Wings combine delicate late Gothic arches framing columns w/ Corinthian acanthus (ornament) leaf motif, blending architectural details from north and south of the Alps 30


 * Center panel arch’s inner rim is decorated w/ a vine (symbolizes eucharist) on the left and ivy (symbolizes immortality) on the right painted to simulate metal or gilded wood, Nuttall writes, “these are concomitantly a tour de force of naturalistic observation, with their curling tendrils and delicate roots, as are the two pairs of snail and a lizard beneath them”, 30


 * Garland bearing putti perched atop the columns widespread by Memling’s time 30 (come back to this) 31


 * Rohlmann
 * Nat Gall acquired the wings in 19th cent 438 depict on one side saints “within an architectural frame” 438


 * Italians plagiarized landscapes from wings too, I.e Biagio d'Antonio 438


 * Wings depict saints “within an architectural frame”; the other side depicts “fascinating scenes of nine cranes in a dark twilight landscape, at the horizon of which glows a pale pink sky. From out of the landscape loom the shadowy grey forms of the resting birds, their red crests shining out as isolated points of colour”. 438


 * Uffizi Virgin with Child and the Nat Gallery wings have the same dimensions; the triptych identification is based on dimensions, steps & floor tiles, & similar architectural features 439


 * Landscape of Uffizi Virgin & Child also frequently plagiarized 439


 * Fra Bartolomeo’s Virgin and Child, |Madonna col Bambino e san Giovannino (Fra Bartolomeo New York) (Italian) combines background from center panel and left side panel, clinches identification 439


 * Garlands above held in place by putti ‘’all’antica’’ > renaissance motif accompanied w/ late Gothic tracery on wings [reword] 439


 * Wing reverse has birds instead of usual grisaille saints; coat of arms adorned w/ pairs of compasses hangs above the cranes. 439


 * Same coat of arms appear on the Master of the Legend of St Ursula Madonna >> also originally a triptych & now inner at Met & outer at Museo Bandini, Fiesole 439 (find this)


 * Heraldry belongs to Florentine Pagagnotti family 439


 * John the Baptist holding the Lamb of God is patron saint of Florence; Lawrence prob = Lorenzo Medici > gazes directly at the beholder/patron/buyer; Mary presents the child of god flanked by angels 444


 * Triptych may have been acquired directly by the Bruges branch for Pagagnotti [cp], or possibly Paulo commissioned when visiting & commissioned similar from Master of St Ursula 444


 * Sources
 * Ainsworth, Maryan. ‘’From Van Eyck to Bruegels, Early Netherlandish Painting … p. 174 (on bookshelf)
 * Brown, Beverly Louise. “Florence and the Netherlands. Florence and Paris.” The Burlington Magazine, vol. 150, no. 1266, 2008, pp. 639–641. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/40479890. Accessed 16 July 2021.
 * Nuttall, Paula. "Memling’s Pagagnotti 'Virgin and Child': Italian Renaissance Sculpture Reimagined. Sculptures Journal'', vol 26. Issue 1, 2017, pp 25–36
 * Rohlmann, Michael. “Memling's 'Pagagnotti Triptych'.” The Burlington Magazine, vol. 137, no. 1108, 1995, pp. 438–445. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/886499. Accessed 16 July 2021.

Links

 * grete ring
 * Our Lady of the Stock
 * Ainsworth
 * Upton
 * Hi res image
 * van der welden abstract (seems to be the same as pdf)
 * eisler

ainsworth (1994)
link
 * Confraternity
 * Confraternity met in the Church of the Friars Minor - destroyed in 1620 (see note 6) 164
 * Oddly only one Madonna of the Dry Tree is associated w/ the confraternity, Pieter Claeissens the Elder's triptych of c. 1520 (see note 7). 164
 * Christus's painting not listed in 1495 church inventory. 164
 * Perhaps commissioned for a member of the confraternity instead of for the chapel. Small size suggests individual devotional piece. 164
 * Bound archives are stamped w/ an emblem of the Virgin standing in a thorny tree w/ dangling As; which suggests an official nature of the iconography, but basically not known who commissioned it. 164


 * Description


 * similar to Madonna of Nicolas van Maelbeke and Madonna of Jan Vos, (christ child motif); Madonna in the Church and Madonna at the Fountain robe drapery; and van der Weyden's motif of child wearing shirt. 164
 * Christus employed illuminated manuscript painting techniques: he placed "tiny daubs of pure color to achieve three-dimensional effects", Virgin's left hand, child's toes, dangling As. (we need a higher res image). 164 style/technique/description?
 * Virgin's robe = blending of red/blue/gree; Child's shirt "achieved by juxtaposing strokes of pure white and gray that merge when viewed from a distance". 164 style/technique/description?
 * Ainsworth re the painting: "Small in size but not in impact, this painting exemplifies the peak of Christus's ability". 164


 * Attribution and dating
 * Since Grete Ring's 1919 attribution, no debate as to authorship. However there has been debate regarding the dating. 164
 * Proponents of a date of c. 1444 point to resemblance to Exeter Madonna & JvE's Madonna of Jan Vos (she says Frick's Virgin and child) 164
 * Christus's membership in the Confraternity of the Dry tree in the 1460s, & similarities to Madonna in the Church combined with Christus's renewed interest in conflating JvE w/ RvdW late in career (possible Memling introduced Christus to RvdW) as seen in Nativity (Memling) suggest date of early to mid-1460s 164

Upton

 * description
 * Dry Tree = peak Christus's ability to draw the viewer into and image, to experience it "as a subjective extension of our lives" 60
 * "In place of the visual splendor or the royal display, this panel embodies a more muted quietude of private thought and silent reverence" 60
 * Similar to Portrait of a Young Girl (Christus), for "stark abruptness of its design and color", but this was his best 60
 * Pure black, red & gold, = "summon us [the viewer] with an emblem like simplicity to investigate more closely the subtle complexities of a most elaborate devotional image" 60
 * Mary = serene & demure, stands in fork of the tree, 15 gothic letter As hang randomly create "shimmering pattern of reflected light" 60
 * Tree grows against darkened void, warmth of the madonna suggests life, growth etc 60
 * Christ child in his mother's arms, his foot clasped playfully. He is draped in linen & holds a crystal globe surmounted w/ cross = symbol of sovereignty 60
 * Unlike JvE's Madonna in the Church, perhaps its model (Upton says counterpart), Christus's Mary is dressed in plainly, unadorned blue dress (some ermine at cuffs), red mantle lined with green. Hair is parted in the middle & held back by a simple thin black diadem (inset w/ pearls?? (can't see that)). 60
 * Very small painting (14.7x12.4 cm) >> almost certainly a devotional piece, either commissioned by a member of the confraternity or belonging to Christus himself > handheld like Rosary beads for private devotion 65
 * Christus's miniature devotional images were meant to allow viewers to meditate fully on the subject, to be absolutely absorbed as though they were actually seeing Mary and child. 65


 * technique/style (or whatever we call this section)
 * Tree is gray/gree w/ yellow tips. Lifeless tree juxtaposed against sparkling color 60
 * The Virgin's bright red mantle is emphasized by the color contrast of its yellow-green lining 64
 * Tree rises from center of lower border "repeatedly used by Christus to join physically, actual and pictorial realities" 65
 * Hanging As reflect light 65
 * Prickly tree branches scratch to edges lending a tactile sensation 65
 * Christus's miniature devotional images were meant to allow viewers to meditate fully on the subject, to be absolutely absorbed as though they were actually seeing Mary and child. 65


 * tree motif/iconography
 * Tree motif refers to Tree of Knowledge, died/withered at fall & revitalized at birth of christ 60
 * Crown of thorns = Christs passion > tree that caused mankind to be cast out becomes instrument of his return to grace 60
 * seth's legend 60
 * Tree graft motif - Guillaume de Deguileville in his Le Pèlerinage de l'Âme (The Pilgrimage of the Soul) >> "man's second chance was brought about by Christ's sinless birth", the Virgin's immaculate conception, and Mary conceived by St. Anne who had been barren, "just as a flourishing branch from the Tree of Life was grafted on to the dried Tree of Knowledge" 61
 * Painting almost certainly commissioned by someone who was a member of the confraternity, along w/ the most powerful men of Philip's court, would have known about his vision & also the direct allusion to Ezekiel 12:24 "And all the trees of the country shall know that I the Lord have brought down the high tree, and exalted the low tree: and have dried up the green tree, and have caused the dry tree to flourish" 62
 * Tree motif/iconography reflects the legends about Philip and Ezekiel, but Christus composition is unique. 62
 * The composition is probably related to the confraternity and based on the medallions of the Madonna of the Dry Tree, none of which survive. 63
 * Upton doubts Pieter Claeissens the Younger's triptych commissioned for the confraternity is based on a prototype of Christus's version, as Grete Ring thought, because of the stark differences in iconography (maybe come back to this), re Old Testament vs. New Testament. 63
 * Madonna & child w/ tree seen in Christus's Nativity - seems to be an iconography Christus likes 64
 * Upton believes, to be the origin of Christus's iconography. He thinks the painting is uniquely "Christus's own invention" 64
 * 15 "A"s correspond to Ave Maria, to the prayers of the Rosary & to Marys five joyful, five glorious & five Sorrowful mysteries Rosary 64

van der Velden

 * "figures are strongly lit" 89
 * Pieter Claeissens the Younger's 1620 triptych Our Lady of the Dry Tree (1620) "provides the key" to identifying Christus's painting. Claeyssens' altarpiece has side panels w/ Moses & burning bush, and Gideon and the Golden Fleece. Claeyssens commission contract indicates the biblical narratives on the two panels were meant to represent Mary's "immaculate virginal purity" or Virgin Birth. 89
 * The "Fleece and Burning bush were well known prefigurations" of Virgin birth, but van der Velden says that Claeyssens' iconography is not a direct reference to Immaculate conception which by then was the "object of the confraternity's devotion". 90
 * Van der Velden explains that it was widely believed the core of the belief of the confraternity was the Immaculate conception, but that in reality "the confraternity of Our Lady of the Dry Tree was not established in support of the doctrine, nor was it devoted to its propagation". 91
 * Christus's painting based on Ezekiel - & Deguileville's 1330 allegory = "metaphorically as an act of God, who grafted a branch from the Tree of Life onto a barren trunk". Also St Anne?? 92
 * Ainsworth says a direct translation of Deguileville's allegory - van der Velden not sure 92
 * Panofsky says directly from Ezekiel and the tree made to live w/ a graft 93-4
 * Might mean "far reaching heroic legend of regeneration" (Upton) or even Philip's idea for a new Jerusalem or crusade 94
 * Van der Velden rejects all these theories and argues (in the next 16 pages) the confraternity was based on an image of Mary "suspended in a dry - meaning a dead- tree when it first manifested its miraculous potency". The miracle tree was the reason for establishing the confraternity he says, and after 1396 the img of Mary removed from the image and moved into the the chapel. He thinks the painting is a reproduction of a (statue??) 94
 * The "forked tree is the distinguishing characteristic of the image" 94
 * Marian confraternities generally venerated a specific Marian image; the confraternities in Bruges less studied than those in Ghent, but the Dry Tree seems to be typical. 96
 * Archival records confirm the confraternity had a statue on the altar. 97
 * 1469 contract w/ Franciscan's renegotiated (Christus was a signatory) w/ list of 'gifts'. Only God gave miracles but "they manifested themselves through particular agents, usually a shrine or a cult image". 97
 * Expiatory rites performed in front the image of Our Lady of the Dry tree 97
 * Our Lady of the Oak in Meerveldhoven venerated from 13th cent to present. Original oak cut down in 1648 - now there's a tree in the chapel 98
 * Re Our Lady of the Dry Tree confraternity in Ghent & its traditions 99
 * Van der Velden mentions that Christus' tree has been compared to the crown of thorns, but it's clearly a tree 99
 * Often chapels were established in places where a tree held an image of Mary (a few pages about this w/ examples) 102
 * Small trees served as altar ornaments; Bruges Dry Tree confrat. mentions two small silver trees in its inventory - one used as an Aspergillum 104
 * Our Lady on the Stock >> come back to this. (Try to find the image). Original tree became attributes "denoting the all-important link between a specific image and its particular provenance, lots of examples. 106
 * Van der Velden believes Christus's painting is faithful depiction of the tree and an accurate reproduction of the placement of the Virgin's image. 108
 * He believes that painting was commissioned as a devotional image & meant to accurately convey the cult image of the Lady of the Dry Tree 109
 * He believes the confraternity venerated a cult image, as was common, and that the "iconography is an explicit and unequivocal testimony to her cult" 109