Has Hlai grammar

This article is a description of the grammar of standardized Has Hlai, a Hlai language spoken on the island of Hainan, China, by the Hlai (Li) ethnic group. The parts of speech are nouns, verbs, adjectives, conjunctions, numerals, adverbs, and pronouns.

Introduction
The Hlai people (or, as they are called in Chinese, the Li – 黎族) are the original inhabitants of southern Hainan. A Kra–Dai people, they are believed to have settled there at least 2,000 to 6,000 years ago, and carry genetic markers from ancient people who reached the island between 7,000 and 27,000 years ago. The Pre-Hlai language they spoke would later evolve into Proto-Hlai, and from there into the modern Hlai languages.

In June 1956, China's government implemented research on Hainan Island of the Hlai people's language.

A 1983 report, Liyu diaocha yanjiu (黎语调查研究), claimed that the Hlai language is made up of five languages: Has 侾黎, Gheis 杞黎, Hyuuen 本地黎, Moeifou 美孚黎, and Deitou 加茂黎. For education, the Lauxhuet dialect of Has (侾方言罗活土语) in Ledong Baoyou Baoding (乐东抱由镇保定村) was chosen to be the Li's standardized language. It was this language from which the "Li orthography" (黎文方案) was developed.

In September 1984, two organizations, Central University for Nationalities and the Institute of Minorities in Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, made some revisions to the Li orthography. The Hlai language's orthography was finalized with the publishing of a textbook entitled Basic Li Course (Pinyin: Liyu Jichu Jiaocheng; Chinese: 黎语基础教程).

At the end of 2019, a Hlai-language dictionary was officially posted online (http://www.tunhlai.com).

Consonants
Has Hlai has 31 consonants. /ȶ/ is only found as a coda. Notes:


 * 1) /ʔ/ is a null initial
 * 2) /ʔw/ and /ʔj/ are glottalized
 * 3) The velar stops are allophonic in Has Hlai with fricative forms (/k/ > /x/, etc)
 * /f/, /v/ are labiodental; /m/, /b/, /p/, /pʰ/, and /pl/ are bilabial

Tones
Has Hlai has 3 tones. Each tone can take two forms, depending on whether the syllable ends in a stop ("tonic tone") or not ("level tone").

Related to mankind/person

 * 【baiskaux】: (1) woman; (2) wife, it is only used by a husband to call his own wife; it is an impolite word to use to call others' wives.
 * 【pasmaen】: (1) man; (2) husband, it is only used by a wife to call her own husband; it is an impolite word to use to call others' husbands.
 * 【baisdza】: mother, it is used by a narrator. When a child calls his/her own mother, he/she uses the word "bais"
 * 【pasdza】: (1) father, it is used by a narrator. When a child calls his/her own father, he/she uses the word "pas"; (2) a respected way to call an elderly man.

Related to objects/things

 * 【ghang】: hill, mountain
 * 【noms/nams】: (1) water; (2) river
 * 【laengs】: sea
 * 【fei】: (1) n.: fire; (2) v.: walk
 * 【ghei】: rice

Related to time or space

 * 【hwanneix】: today;【uuhaux】: tomorrow
 * 【paisdeuu】: up;【paisfou】: down; 【paiskueng】: right;【paishluums】: left

People

 * Han (Chinese) name: All Li's Chinese names are loan words, borrowed from the Hainanese spoken language in the region called Uislius (黄流), e.g., Maeus zek dhongx, (Mao Zedong (毛泽东), the founder of the People's Republic of China.
 * Hlai name: The Li people usually call their children with names from their own language (Hlai).

Group/organization/party

 * These are loan words from Hainanese, e.g., Dangx Gok Gong Caens Dhaengs (中国共产党), Chinese Communist Party.

Places

 * These are loan words from Hainanese, e.g., Bhakgengs, "Beijing, 北京 (capital of the People's Republic of China)"; Haeisnaems dhaeus, "Hainan Island, 海海南岛"; Lokdhongs, "Ledong, 乐东 (the central city of the tribe of Has Hlai )"

Nations

 * Most are loan words from Hainanese, e.g., Dangx Gok, "China, 中国";
 * few are not loan words, e.g., Moei, "Han people, 汉族"; Hlai, "Li people, 黎族"

Abstract nouns
These nouns are mostly loan words. The Hlai language being both practical and concrete in nature, is not suitable for describing anything intangible.

The basic rules for Nouns in Hlai language
1. Nouns usually cannot be modified by number alone; the number needs a proper classifier following the number to modify the noun.

zuu lang dzax

a/one CL snake

"a snake"

But, nouns associated with dates (like year, month, day), are modified with numbers alone (no classifiers).

fus boux

three year

"three years"

hlaus hwan

two day

"two days"

ba nyaen

five month

"May"

When the word "nyaen" refers to the name of a month (as May above), a number can modify "nyaen" without a classifier. However, when the word "nyaen" refers to the number of months (as below), a classifier is required to modify the word "nyaen."

ba hom nyaen

five CL month

"five months"

2. Nouns cannot be modified by adverbs, nor can a noun be doubled (e.g., **uxaeu uxaeu, "man man"; **blongs blongs, "house house") to express the meaning of "every" as is done in Chinese. The way to present the meaning of "every" is to use the word "ranx" plus a proper classifier as below:

ranx zuen uxaeu

every CL man/one

"everyone"

ranx hom blongs

every CL house

"every house"

3. Although the Hlai language does not have declension of gender, it does have two prefixes to indicate the gender: "bais" for female and "pas" for male, e.g.


 * pasdza, "father"
 * baisdza, "mother"
 * paskai, "cock/rooster"（kai: chicken）
 * baiskai, "hen"
 * pasdzuengsgong, "salesman" （dzuengs: sale, gong: stuff）
 * baisdzuengsgong, "saleswoman"

When the word "bais" exists alone, the meaning is mother; "pas" means father. "Pas" could also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

Kun hluuekmuuen hauux zuu pas lax zuu hom.

PL {young man} those one CL eat one CL

"Each of those young men ate one."

4.The Hlai language does not use suffixes or prefixes for nouns to denote plurality as in the English language. But, the Hlai language uses the word "kun" to indicate the plurality of nouns, e.g.

Kun aeudza rien tun raeu dhuus fou cai.

PL {old man} say/talk/speak word laugh in under tree

"The old men were telling jokes under the tree."

The word "kun" can also be used together with a number and a classifier to modify nouns, e.g.,

Kun hlaus zuen kauus fuuek riens paens.

PL two CL {older sister} weave skirt {decorative pattern}

"The two older sisters were weaving skirts with a decorative pattern."

5. A noun can be a subject, predicate, object, e.g.

cai tuuen ceeng

tree {out of} flower

subject {} object

"trees bloom (flowers)"

Veengs hauux veengs meuu.

shirt/top that shirt/top you.SG

subject {} predicate {}

"That shirt/top is yours."

6. A noun can be an attribute, and also can be modified by attributes e.g.

Meuu kweis ojiep caqias Hlai da?

you want learn script Li Q

"Do you want to learn Hlai script?"

7. A noun can also be an adverbial modifier, e.g. Tong neix cai vuek.

tong this tree/wood do/make

"This hookah is made out of wood." (tong = An apparatus for smoking, such as a hookah)

8. A noun in relation to time can even be an adverbial modifier to modify a verb, e.g.

Hwanneix fous dhat lo!

today hot very EMPH

"It's so hot today!"

Na uunyeuu hei zok das.

he/she {day after tomorrow} go to/toward {mother's mother}

"He is going to grandma's house the day after tomorrow."

Fa uupans beuuluueng.

we yesterday {come back}

"We came back yesterday."

9. When the word "guu" is placed before a noun to indicate subordination, this combination functions as a possessive phrase, and can only be in the predicate of the sentence, e.g.

Vabheny neix guu Dongxgok.

airplane this POSS China

"This airplane belongs to China."

Hlaus lang duis neix guu Laufus.

two CL {water buffalo} this POSS {Mr. Fu}

"These two water buffaloes belong to Mr. Fu."

Action verbs

 * 【vuek，做】: to do, make...(it is used frequently)
 * 【lax，吃】: (1) to eat, drink, smoke...; (2) to swallow up (it is used frequently)
 * 【duuengx，给】: to give
 * 【taeix，打】: to strike, hit
 * 【bleuu，听】: (1) to hear; (2) to feel
 * 【dzok，偷】: to steal
 * 【zongs，坐】: to sit
 * 【ghais，叫，请，派】: to tell someone(s) to do something; to invite...
 * 【fei，走】: (1) v.: to walk; (2) n.: fire
 * 【cuuek，休息】: to rest
 * 【tuas，欺骗】: to cheat
 * 【liengs，看守】: to watch, to guard
 * others

Linking verbs

 * 【man，是】: am, is, are (be verbs, sometimes omitted in the sentence)
 * 【ghwaix，不是】: am not, is not, are not

Verbs for expressing mental activities

 * 【dhas，怕】: to fear, to be afraid of
 * 【ngop，想念】: to long to see again, to miss
 * 【oep，爱】: to love, to like
 * 【vuuengx，心里烦乱】: confusing, disorderly (used as a verb)
 * 【luuemx，忘记】: to forget
 * 【uuen，埋怨】: to complain
 * 【tuuenngaen，生气】: to be angry (other similar word: kis, kisngaen)
 * 【dhaix，忍受】: to endure, to bear
 * others

Verbs for expressing existence, change, development

 * 【dhuus，在】:(1) v.: to exist; (2) prep.: in, on, at
 * 【zaux，有】: to have, there is/are
 * 【hlaeux，死】: (1) v.: to die; (2) n.: death
 * 【hlou，生】: (1) v.: to give birth; (2) adj.: alive, living
 * 【long，长大】: (1) v.: to grow up; (2) adj.: big, large
 * 【dzauux，变】: to change
 * others

Modal verbs

 * 【gieu，能】: to be good at, to be able to, can
 * 【gax，不能】: to be unable to, cannot
 * 【kweis，愿意】: to be willing to
 * 【ais，不愿】: to be not willing to
 * 【dheeng-hwoek，同意，愿意】: to agree with, to be willing to
 * 【kueng，会】: to know how to, to be able to
 * 【boei，不会】: to not know how to, to be unable to
 * 【loepp，可以，能够】: to be allowed to, to be able to
 * 【guulax，必须，应该】: must, should
 * 【kiemx，必须，应该】: must, should (this is a loan word)
 * 【komx，必须，应该】: must, should (this is a loan word)
 * 【auux，敢】: to dare to
 * others

Verbs of motion

 * 【buuen，来】: to come
 * 【hei，去】: to go
 * 【beuu，回】: to go back to, to return
 * 【luueng，返】: to return
 * 【dhuas，过】: to pass through
 * 【kaen，上】: to go up
 * 【luei，下】: to go down
 * 【hluet，进】: to go into
 * 【tuuen，出】: (1) v.: to go out, to leave, to exit; (2) prep.: from
 * 【dhaens，到】: to arrive

A.  Progressive aspect
The adverbial word "faets" or "fietla" can express the action in process, and is placed before a verb, e.g.,

Na faets lax tax.

he/she ADV.PROG eat rice

"He is eating." (他 正在 吃 饭)

Daty faets bheny.

bird ADV.PROG fly

"The birds are flying." (鸟 正在 飞)

Hluuek na fietla laix dax.

child he/she ADV.PROG plough field

"His children/child are/is plowing the field." (他的孩子正在犁田)

B.  Perfect aspect
The verbs with the word "bhaeis" expresses an action that has already happened. If "bhaeis" is placed before a verb, it is an adverbial,e.g.,

Hluuek na         bhaeis                                              hei  ang  he.

child    he/she  adverbial word of perfective aspect  go field  accent

"他的孩子已经去山栏地了，His children/child already went to the field."

Pashlaus      na         bhaeis                                               bleuu  fan    rien,

older brother he/she  adverbial word of perfective aspect  hear   then  say

"Eis,     hluumsghweuu na          guu.                                  loms        cas da?"

Accent don't know        he/she auxiliary of future aspect still/again or    not

"他哥哥（已经）听了便说，"哎，不知道他还要这样不?"，

When his brother heard of it, he said, "Oh, I don't know that he would still do that (or) not?"

If the word "bhaeis" is placed after a verb, it acts as a complement and means "finished", e.g.,

Hou lax   tax bhaeis    goms  hei.

I       eat  rice finished  then    go

"我吃完饭就去，After I finish dinner, I'll go."

The word "dhuas" can also denote the perfect aspect, ("(1) v.: pass through; (2) an auxiliary word that indicates that an action has already happened, and is placed after the verb; (3) an auxiliary word that expresses a comparison, and is placed after the adjective") e.g.,

Meuu laeis  zuu zuen         aeu                   neix  dhuas    cas  da?

you    see    one classifier  person/people  this  auxiliary  or    not

"你见过这个人吗？Have you ever seen this man?"

Dhes da   rien            dhongneix  dhuas.

I        not  say/speak like this       auxiliary

"我没有说过这样的话，I didn't say anything like that."

C.  Future aspect
The auxiliary word "kweis" or "guu" indicates that an action is in future by being placed before a verb, e.g.,

Na       kweis                               hei  Damxax.

he/she auxiliary word for future go   Sanya city

"他要去三亚，He is going to Sanya."

Meuu kweis                              vuek         meshes?

you    auxiliary word for future  do/make  what

"你要干什么？What will you do?"

The nuance between the two words "kweis" and "guu" is that: when two verbs are used together, if the first one is the method of the second one, or the second one is the purpose of the first one, only the word "guu" can be placed before the second verb, e.g.,

Bhoek noms  guu                        roengx  tax.

carry   water  for the purpose of  cook    rice

"打水煮饭，bring the water (used) for cooking"

D.  Others
If an action only lasts for a short while, the adverbial word "zuufanx" is placed mafter the f de f de verb, e.g.,

Gaux     zuufanx.

lie down a short while

"躺一会儿，Liedown (for) a short while."

Duuengx       hou  cat      zuufanx.

to let/to allow I,      wear  a short while

"给我穿一下子，Let me wear it (for) a short while."

==== 2.   Hlai verbs, including action verbs, verbs for expressing mental activities, and verbs for expressing existence, change, and development, can be predicates or predicate heads in a sentence. Most of these verbs can be followed by objects or by complements, and can be modified by adverbials, nouns of time, and auxiliary words, e.g., ====

Dhes naeus  buuen.

I         just     come

"我刚来，I just came here."

Mieu gaenys diu.

cat   bite       mouse

"猫咬老鼠，A cat bites a mouse."

Pasdza dhuus    blongs.

father   exist/in house

"父亲在家，Father is at home."

Meuu uuhaux      kweis                              hei  da？

you   tomorrow  auxiliary word for future  go  not

"你明天去吗？Are you going tomorrow (or not)?"

==== 3.   Hlai verbs, except for linking verbs, can usually be made nominal by adding a prefix "uu-"; nominal verbs can be a subject, but cannot be a major part of the predicate, e.g., ====

Uu-    laix    hauux  dax hou.

prefix  plow  that    field  my

"那犁过的是我的田，The field that has been plowed is mine."

Uu-    buuen  hauux  ghueng                          dhes.

prefix come   that      young brother or sister  my

"那个来的是我的弟弟（妹妹），The one who is coming is my brother/sister."

Nominal verbs still can function as a verb with an object following it; the nominal verb and the object together can function as a subject, object or nominal predicate, e.g.,

Duis    neix  man  uu-    duuengx  hlausghueng.

buffalo this  is      prefix give          relatives

"这牛是给亲戚的，The buffalo is for (giving to) the relatives."

Uu-    oep  hou man  dhangjis  hou.

prefix love  me   is     comrade my

"爱我的是我的同志，The one who loves me is my comrade."

==== 4.   Hlai verbs are rarely doubled as they are in Chinese; only monosyllabic action verbs and verbs for expressing mental activities can be doubled. Doubled monosyllabic verbs imply that the action is casually and carelessly done, e.g., ====

Na      bleuu  bleuu  fan   beuu.

he/she hear    hear  then  go back

"他听了听就回去了，He (only) heard about/of it and went back."

Kun                hluuekueng  dzueis dzueis fan    fei     hluet    blongs.

plural marker young girl     look     look    then  walk  go into house

"姑娘们看了看就走进屋里去了，The girls (only) taking a quick look, then went into the house."

A verb followed by "laeis" comes to mean "to try"; if a verb is followed by an object, the word "laeis" should be placed after the object, e.g.,

Hou qim    laeis.

I       taste  try

"我尝尝看，I'll try (to taste) it."

Meuu     dzueis dhang  na        laeis.

You (s.) look     face     he/she  try

"你看看他的脸，You try to look at his face."

==== 5.   Modal verbs are usually placed before a verb forming the predicate of a sentence to express 1) the ability of the one performing the action, or 2) the possibility, obligation, or need of the action, e.g., ====

Dhes kueng         rien             tun     Moei.

I         know how  say/speak  word  Han/Chinese

"我会讲汉语，I can speak Chinese."

Meuu kiemx            hei  geek       guns.

You    should/must  go   look for  firewood

"你应该去砍柴，You should look for firewood."

Meuu guulax           dhongneix  vuek  naus dhiu.

you    should/must  like this       do     just    right

"你必须这样做才对，You must do (it) like this, (for it) to be done just right."

Meuu gieu            vuek  meshes?

You    be good at  do     what

"你能干什么？What are you good at?"

Na       boei                 taeis   zuu hom         qias    neix.

he/she be not able to write  one  classifier  script  this

"他不会写这个字，He does not know how to write this one script."

Hou dheeng'hwoek       vuek.

I       be willing to/agree  do

"我愿意/同意做，I am willing to (do that) / I agree to (do that)."

Meuu kweis            beuu   na        da?

You    be willing to marry  he/she  not

"你愿意嫁他吗？Are you willing to marry him?"

Na        ais                      vuek.

he/she be not willing to  do

"他不愿意做，He is not willing to (do that)."

Na      gax               vuek  gong neix.

he/she be not able  do     work  this

"他无法做这个工作，He is not able to do this work."

Na       loepp                                buuen.

he/she be allowed to/be able to  come

"他可以来，He is able to come. / He is allowed to come."

Hou auux      taeix hapaeu.

I       dare to      shoot

"我敢打枪，I dare to shoot."

Modal verbs cannot be followed by noun-objects, nor can modal verbs be doubled, except in an interrogative sentence, that a positive and negative modal verb is used to ask yes or no,e.g.,

Meuu kueng        da   kueng?

You    know how  not know how

"你会不会？Do you know how to do it (or not)?"

Only in answering questions, can a modal verb act alone as a predicate, except for the modal verbs "kiemx", "guulax" and the word "guu", which cannot act as a predicate, e.g.,

''Meuu gieu           rien             tun    Hlai cas  da? Dhes gieu.''

You    be able to say/speak  word  Li    or    not? I       be able to

"你能说黎语吗？我能，Can you speak the Hlai/Li language? I can."

Modal verbs sometimescan be followed by an object, e.g.,

Na bhaeis  o                          kueng        qias    Hlai  he.

he already  learn (loan word)  know how script  Li     accent

"他已经学会黎文了，He already learned the Hlai's/Li's script."

The antonym of the modal verb "kweis" is "ais"; the antonym of "kueng" is "hluums", and that of "gieu" is "gax", which cannot be used in the imperative mood.

6.  Verbs of motion can act alone as a predicate, e.g.,
Uengxtoengs buuen res!

everyone        come   accent

"大家来吧！Everyone, come!"

Also, verbs of motion can follow a main verb to express the direction of the action forming a predicate, e.g.,

Dhes fei     hluet    blongs.

I        walk  go into house

"我走进屋里，I walked into the house."

Na      tuuen  blongs  ghoux tuuen   buuen.

he/she from    house  run      go out  come

"他从屋里跑出来，He ran out of the house."

Zuufanx        blei    hei,      zuufanx          blei    luueng.

a short while swim  go to, a short while  swim  go back

"一会儿游去，一会儿游回，swim back and forth."

Also, verbs of motion can combine together and become compound words as can be seen in the chart below: The compound words above can be followed by objects, e.g.,

Hou hwanneix  bhaeis   duengx      heikaen  hwous.

I       today        already carry/bring  go up     mountain

"我今天已经送到山上去，I have already brought (it) to the mountain today."

Pasdza  ghuis          na        heihluet  hwous     hloek.

Father   lead/direct  he/she go into    mountain  deep

"父亲带他进入深山，Father took him into the remote mountains."

Pasbhanghlauux fan   beuuluueng  blongs.

name of a man   then  come back   home

"Pasbhanghlauux 便回家去，Then, Pasbhanghlauux went home."

Except for the word "luueng", the words found in the first column of the chart ("dhuas", "kaen", "luei", "hluet", "tuuen", and "beuu") and the words found along the top row ("buuen", "hei", and "beuu") can exchange positions. After exchanging positions, the compound words cannot be followed by an object, and usually are used in imperative mood.

==== 7.   Linking verbs are placed before nouns, noun phrases or pronouns, combining two grammatical parts as a predicate, to provide information about the objects, e.g., ====

Hou man  Hlai, ghwaix  Moei.

I       am    Li,    am not   Han/Chinese

"我是黎族，不是汉族，I am a Li, not a Han."

Na man  pashlaus        hou.

He is      older brother  my

"他是我的哥哥，He is my older brother."

The linking verbs can be omitted, e.g.,

Na pasghueng        hou.

He younger brother  my

"他是我的弟弟，He is my younger brother."

But, when the subject or predicate is too long, or when the predicate includes numbers, the linking verbs cannot be omitted, e.g.,

Gha uengxtoengs bhaeisbhaeis  ruus  man uxaeu   Dongxgok.

We   everyone        all                   all      are  people  China

"咱们大家都是中国人，All of us are Chinese."

Linking verbs cannot go with words that indicate the tense (like "faets" or "bhaeis" or "dhuas"), nor with directional verbs or with the complement, nor be modified by adverbials, or be doubled.

8.  When the suffix "toengs" is added to some verbs, the compound words become reciprocal verbs, and cannot be followed by any objects, e.g.,
Duis               tut'toengs.

Water buffalo collide with each other

"牛互相碰撞，The buffaloes collided with each other."

Na        hlaus zuen         oeptoengs         dhat.

He/she two     classifier love each other  truly

"他们两人很相爱，The two of them love each other very much."

9.  Some words in Hlai language are both nouns and verbs, e.g.,
In Chinese and English, the verb "wear" can apply to different actions, like wearing a necklace, wearing a hat, or wearing earrings. However, in Hlai language these different actions are distinguished by different verbs, e.g.,


 * "to wear"
 * kienx (for wearing a necklace);
 * mieng (for wearing earrings);
 * ngwaus (for wearing a hat);
 * pien (for wearing a skirt, pants, shoes);
 * cat (for wearing a top, a shirt)
 * "noise"
 * roeng (from an insect or bird);
 * vuns (from a dog);
 * hyoen (from a rooster);
 * ngwaety (from a human)

Describing the characteristics of a person or thing

 * 【hleny，好】: good
 * 【reek，坏】: bad, not good
 * 【kaeix，冷】: cold
 * 【fous/faus，热】: hot
 * 【dza，老】: old
 * 【bluuek，年轻】: young
 * 【hloek，深】: deep
 * 【tuuens，浅】: shallow
 * others

Describing the forms/attributes of thing

 * 【long，大】: big, large
 * 【enyx，小】: small
 * 【peek，高】: tall, high
 * 【tauus，矮】: short
 * 【daeus，长】: long
 * 【taty，短】: short
 * others

Describing the state of actions or emotions

 * 【dzuuns，快】: quick
 * 【dais，慢】: slow
 * 【hluengs，松】: loose
 * 【guung，紧】: tight
 * 【hlenyfaty，快乐】: happy
 * 【heen，容易】: easy
 * others

The basic rules for Adjectives in Hlai language
==== 1.    In Hlai language, adjectives cannot be a subject, nor an object, but can act as a predicate, attribute, adverbial, or complement. ====

A.  As a predicate
The adjective goes after the subject, e.g.,

Zuu hom        coem  hauux  long        baisias.

One classifier  fruit    that     big/large  very much

"那一个果子很大，That fruit (is) large!"

Zuu zuen        aeu               max   reek.

One classifier  man/person there  bad

"那一个人坏，That man (is) bad/notorious."

B. As an attribute
The adjective goes after the noun that is modified, e.g.,

dhop kieu

cloth blue/green

"蓝布，(a) blue cloth"

veengs   paens

shirt/top colorful

"花衣服，(a) loud (pronounced colors) shirt"

fun  long

rain big

"大雨，heavy rain"

hwous     enyx

mountain small

"小山，(a) small mountain / hill"

blongs peek

house  tall

"高房子，(a) tall house"

ceeng hleny

flower good

"好花，(a) pretty flower"

C. As an adverbial
The adjective is placed before the verb, e.g.,

Meuu dais  dais   lax  as.

You    slow  slow  eat  an accent

"你慢慢地吃吧！(You) Eat slowly."

Na        kauuspaeis      fei.

He/she swift in action  walk

"他迅速地走，He walked quickly."

D.  As a complement
The adjective usually comes after the verb in a sentence, e.g.,

Na        vuek       reek he.

He/she do/make  bad  an accent

"他弄坏了，He has broken (it)."

Meuu bhaeis  laix    hleny  hyos?

You    already  plow well    marker of question

"你已经犁好了吗？Have you finished plowing?"

2.  An adjective also can be modified by adverbs, which can be placed either before or after the adjective, e.g.,
da  hleny

not good

"不好，not good"

da  peek

not tall

"不高，not tall"

vaeu reek

most bad

"最坏，worst"

duix hlenymuuen

most beautiful

"最美丽，most beautiful"

paens            dhatdhat

colorful/floral truly/really

"很花，very colorful"

hlenyfaty baisias

happy      very much

"很高兴，very happy"

A.  comparative degree
Either "dhuas" or "bhi", denote comparative degree; the former one is a Hlai word, the latter a loan word. If the word "dhuas" is used, it should be placed after the adjective, and the adjective and "dhuas" should be placed between the two objects being compared, e.g.,

Baisdza peek  dhuas         hluuekbaiskaux.

Mother   tall     more than  daughter

"母亲高过女儿，The mother is taller than her daughter."

Zuuhwuuep                       long   dhuas        zuu'ei.

Winter melon/white gourd  big    more than  pumpkin

"冬瓜大过南瓜，The white gourd is bigger than her pumpkin."

If the loan word "bhi" is used, it is placed between the two objects being compared, and the adjective is placed after the latter object, e.g.,

Meuu bhi          dhes  peek.

You    compare  I        tall

"你比我高，You are taller than I (am)."

Blongs dhes bhi           blongs  na hleny.

House   my    compare house   his  good

"我的房子比他的房子好，My house is better than his."

B. superlative degree
Either "vaeu" or "duix", denote superlative degree; the former one is a Hlai word, the latter a loan word. If either "vaeu" or "duix" is used, it should be placed before the adjective, e.g.,

Pashlaus        vaeu gieu.

Older brother most capable

"哥哥最能干，The older brother is most capable."

Baiscuty                 duix  hlenymuuen.

Youngest daughter most  beautiful

"幺妹最漂亮，The youngest daughter is most beautiful."

According to my Hlai language consultant, Mr. Liu, "The word veau could possibly imply a derogatory, an exaggerated or overstated statement." It depends on the context.

C. Others
"Zuugit", instead of indicating comparative or superlative degrees, denotes "(just) a little bit", e.g.,

Zuu kuuengx  cai   neix  peek zuugit.

One classifier  tree this   tall     a little bit

"这棵树高一点，This three is just a little bit taller."

Veengs   neix baen  zuugit.

shirt/top this   new  a little bit

"这衣服新一点，This dress is just a little bit newer."

==== 4.   Except for adjectives that describe a mental/emotional status, adjectives can be made nominal by adding the prefix "uu-". Adjectives that are nominal cannot be a predicate, but can act as a subject, an object, or an attribute, e.g., ====

Uu-hleny         neix man  guu                                meuu.

The good one this    is     a maker of possession  you

"这个好的是你的，This good one is yours."

Na        qieng     dheuu uu-daeus.

He/she want to  take    the long one

"他想拿长的，He wants to take the long one."

Kai        uu-long        hauux man  guu                               dhes.

Chicken the big one  that     is      a maker of possession  me

"那只大的鸡是我的，That big chicken is mine."

==== 5.   Adjectives for describing the forms/attributes of things, and those for describing the status of actions or emotions, can be doubled, but the adjective has to be monosyllabic.When the adjectives are doubled, the degree of the adjective increases, e.g., ====

veengs   kaeu kaeu

shirt/top white  white

"白白的衣服，white clothes"

dzuuns dzuuns buuen

quick     quick    come

"快快来，come quickly"

dais  dais   fei

slow slow  walk

"慢慢走，walk slowly" (When the Hlai people are saying farewell (bye), "dais dais fei" is the phrase they say to each other.)

Two different adjectives can be doubled like AABB, e.g.,

Blongs dhes baen  baen  hleny hleny.

House   my    new   new   good  good.

"我的房子又新又好，My house is new and good."

Zuu hom         hwous     neix  peek  peek long  long.

One classifier  mountain this   high   high  big    big

"这一座山又高又大，This mountain is tall and big."

Two different adjectives also can be positioned in an ABAB pattern, e.g.,

Guen neix peek  tauus  peek  tauus.

Road  this   high  short  high   short

"这条路高高低低，This road is rough/bumpy."

Na       fei      aus    uty       aus     uty.

He/she walk  swing swing  swing  swing

"他踉踉跄跄地走着，He is walking tipsy (unsteady like a drunk)."

Zuu dhaenx    guen   neix  muety   toei  muety    toei.

One classifier  road  this   straight  flat  straight  flat

"这一条路平平直直，This road is straight and smooth."

Also, some monosyllabic adjectives express an increasing degree by the adding of a prefix, which combines the initial consonant of that adjective with a vowel like "i" or "u"; and the tone of the prefix is the first tone, e.g.,

li-       loek

prefix dark

"黑漆漆，pitch-dark"

ri-      raeux

prefix sparse

"稀疏，sparse"

gu-    goeks

prefix concave

"黑漆漆，full of bumps and holes/uneven"

ghu-  ghaeu

prefix clear

"清澈，clear"

6.  Some adjectives can have a duplicated suffix tagged on to the ends, which cannot exist independently, to intensify the description, e.g.,
kaeu- laepplaepp

white something looks bright

"亮晶晶，something is so white as to be bright"

loek- tingting

black something looks dark

"黑漆漆，something is so black as to be dark"

tax  fous-qiettqiett

rice hot   something looks hot

"饭热乎乎，the hot rice"

7.   The word "enyx" is used to describe something small, and can either be placed before the noun or after; either way the emphasis is on the latter word, e.g.,
The word "long" is used to describe something big or large, and can either be placed before the noun or after; either way the emphasis is on the former word, e.g., Another way to express something big or large is to add the prefix "bais-" to nouns related to objects/things; but, if the prefix "bais-" is added to nouns related to mankind/persons, it becomes an indicator of gender, e.g., Nouns that have the prefix "bais-" added on to them can be modified by the word "long" to increase the degree, e.g.,

bais-kuuengxcai long,

big  tree              big

"很大的树，large tree"

bais-qien   long,

big  stone  big

"很大的石头，large stone"

If the speaker intends to increase the degree, the word "dhat" or "dhatdhat" can be added.

Numbers
Numbers in Hlai language, including cardinal numbers, ordinal numbers, and numbers of approximation, usually act as subjects, predicate, or objects in a sentence. When numbers are used with classifiers, together they become a phrase that can be an attribute to modify the noun phrase.

Basic numbers units

 * 【ceuus/zeuus/zuu，一】: one (in some case, the word "lax" also mean the digit—"one")
 * 【hlaus，二】: two
 * 【fus，三】: three
 * 【caus，四】: four
 * 【ba，五】: five
 * 【dom，六】: six
 * 【tou，七】: seven
 * 【ghou，八】: eight
 * 【fauus，九】: nine
 * 【fuet，十】: ten
 * 【ghwaen，百】: hundred
 * 【nguen，千】: thousand
 * 【vaens，万】: ten thousand

Basic numbers unit combinations

 * 【fuet ceuus，十一】: eleven
 * 【fuet hlaus，十二】: twelve
 * 【hlaus fuet，二十】: twenty
 * 【fus fuet ba，三十五】: thirty five
 * 【lax ghwaen hlaus fuet，一百二十】: one hundred twenty
 * 【caus nguen uengx ceuus，四千零一】: four thousand zero one (4,001)
 * 【zuu vaens，一万】: ten thousand

C. Cardinal numbers by themselves usually cannot modify nouns, but need to be placed before a classifier to modify the noun that goes after the classifier, e.g.,
zuu lang kai

one CLF chicken

"one chicken"

fuet zuen aeu

ten CLF person/man

"ten people"

hlaus nguen kuuengx cai

two thousand CLF tree

"two thousands tree"

However, in relation to dates (like year, month, day), numbers can modify these types of nouns without classifiers.

Meuuda doengs dhuus Bhakgengs zuu boux hei lo.

you live in Beijing one year pass accent

"You have lived in Beijing for a year."

Na hlaus hwan da kaen hwous geek guns lo.

he two day not {go up} mountain search firewood accent

"These past two days he has not gone up to the mountain to look for firewood."

D. Cardinal numbers cannot be doubled, except for with "nguen" and "vaens"; when their pattern is AABB, and the resulting phrase means a number of great amount, e.g.,
Zaux nguen nguen vaens vaens aeu buuen.

have thousand thousand {ten thousand} {ten thousand} man come

"There are thousands of people coming."

Nguen nguen vaens vaens aeu ngan qieng hei Bhakgengs.

thousand thousand {ten thousand} {ten thousand} man also/all desire go Beijing.

"Thousands of people want to go to Beijing."

Sometimes, the words "nguen" and "vaens" combine with "jieng" or "zuu" to form an ABAC phrase to modify a noun, synonymous in meaning to the AABB pattern, e.g.,

Zaux jieng nguen jieng vaens aeu hei.

have form thousand form {ten thousand} man go

"There are thousands of people going."

Zuu nguen zuu vaens aeu ngan qieng fas fun.

one thousand one {ten thousand} man all desire sky rain

"Thousands of people look forward to the rain."

E. There are four words ("zuu", "ceuus/zeuus", and "lax") that can represent the place value of "one", but each word has its own usage.
First, when Hlai people count, they will say, "ceuus/zeuus, hlaus, fus, caus…(1, 2, 3, 4…)", they won't use "zuu" or "lax" for one.

The word "zuu" needs to go with a classifier to modify a noun.

zuu lang duis

one CLF {water buffalo}

"one water buffalo"

The digit 1, when it is either in the 100's, 1,000's, 10,000's, 100,000's.... place of a number, the word "zuu" should be used for 1, e.g.,

zuu ghwaen

one hundred

"one hundred"

zuu nguen

one thousand

"one thousand"

zuu vaens

one {ten thousand}

"ten thousand"

The digit 1, when it is either in the 10's or 1's place of a number, the word "ceuus/zeuus" should be used for 1, e.g.,

fuet ceuus/zeuus

ten one

"eleven (11)"

zuu ghwaen ceuus/zeuus fuet

one hundred one ten

"one hundred and ten (110)"

zuu vaens zuu nguen ceuus/zeuus fuet ceuus/zeuus

one {ten hundred} one thousand one ten one

"Eleven thousand and eleven (11,011)"

zuu ghwaen uengx ceuus/zeuus

one hundred and one

"one hundred and one (101)"

However, if the number is used with a classifier, then the word "zuu" should be used, e.g.,

zuu nguen uengx zuu hom

one thousand and one CLF

"one thousand and one (objects)"

The word "lax" cannot be used with a classifier. The word "lax" only can be used in the first digit when the number is bigger than ten. However, if the number is multiple of 10 like 100, 1000, 10000...etc., the word "zuu" should be used, instead of "lax". e.g.,

"eleven (11)"

lax ghwaen ceuus/zeuus fuet ceuus/zeuus

one hundred one ten one

"one hundred and eleven (111)"

"one thousand six hundred (1600)"

F. There are two words ("fuet" and "bun") that are used for the place value of "ten," but each word has its usage.
First, "fuet" is used for the number ten when counting. "Bun" does not need to go with a classifier to modify a noun. However, if the word "bun" does go with a classifier to modify a noun, the only two classifiers that can be used are "hom" and "lang"; but when "lang" is used with people, "bun" cannot be used.

"twenty dollars"

"thirty chickens"

"Fuet" needs to go with a classifier to modify a noun, e.g.,

fuet lang duis

ten CLF {water buffalo}

"ten water buffalo"

However, "fuet" can be placed in front of nouns, which are also classifiers, e.g.,

ba fuet boux

five ten CLF/year

"fifty years"

fus fuet waeu

three ten CLF/bowl

"thirty bowls"

Zero
In Hlai language, there is no word for the number "zero"; some areas adopted the loan word "lengs" (零，zero), e.g.,

zuu ghwaen lengs ba

one hundred zero five

"one hundred and five (105)"

However, the number "zero" can be represented by the conjunction "uengx" or "loms", e.g.,

zuu ghwaen uengx hlaus (hom)

one hundred and two (CLF)

"one hundred and two (102)"

fus nguen loms hlaus fuet (hom)

three thousand again two ten (CLF)

"three thousand and twenty (3020)"

H. In Hlai language, there are two rules to construct numbers
(1) when any single digit from 1 to 9 is placed after "fuet", "ghwaen", "nguen", or "vaens", the relation between the digit and the word is addition, e.g.,

ten one

"eleven (11)"

ten two

"twelve (12)"

(2) when any single digit from 1 to 9 is placed before "fuet", "ghwaen", "nguen", or "vaens", the relation between the digit and the word is multiplication, e.g.,

three ten

"thirty (30)"

two hundred

"two hundred (200)"

Ordinal numbers
A.   In Hlai language, the word "ghwous" (头，head) or "ceuus" (一，one) means "first", and the word "cuty" (尾，tail) means "last"; for all numbers in between first and last, the word "tom" (中间，middle) is used.

hluuek-ghwous-ghwa

child    head      to plant

"老大（长子），the first born child (usually, it means "son")"

hluuek-tom

child   middle

"老二，老三…，the child(ren) in the middle"

hluuek-cuty

child    tail

"老幺，the youngest child"

When one's gender is needed, the word "pasmaen" (男人，man) or "baiskaux" (女人，woman) can be added, e.g.,

hluuek-pasmaen-ghwous-ghwa   = hluuek-ghwous-ghwa

child    man        head      to plant = child     head     to plant

"长子，the first born son"

hluuek-baiskaux-ghwous-ghwa  =  hluuek-baiskaux-long

child    woman    head     to plant = child     woman    big

"大女儿，the first born daughter"

Usually "ghwous" indicates the oldest male; "long" the oldest female, like "kauuslong" (大姐, oldest sister), "zoulong" (大嫂，wife of oldest brother).

Moreover, the prefix "pas-" (男性，man) or "bais-" (女性，woman) can be added to the words "tom" and "cuty", to indicate gender, e.g.,

pas-           tom

male prefix middle

"次子，the son in the middle"

bais-             cuty

female prefix tail

"幺女，the youngest daughter"

When ordinal numbers apply to things, usually the phrase is constructed by "ghwous" + "zuu" + a proper classifier to represent the first one, e.g.,

ghwous zuu  kuuengx

head      one  classifier for tree

"头一棵，the first (tree)"

To present the last one, usually the phrase is constructed with the words "baiscuty" + "zuu" + a proper classifier, e.g.,

baiscuty zuu  hom

last/tail   one   classifier

"最后一个，the last (one)"

To present the middle one(s), usually the phrase is constructed with the words "baistom" + "zuu" + a proper classifier, e.g.,

baistom zuu lang

middle   one  classifier

"第二，或第三…，the 2nd, or 3rd…"

Counting with ordinal numbers
Usually, any accuracy in communication is done with loan words from Chinese, e.g.,


 * 【dhoeis-iet，第一】: first
 * 【dhoeis-dzis，第二】: second
 * 【dhoeis-das，第三】: third
 * 【dhoeis-dis，第四】: fourth
 * 【dhoeis-ngau，第五】: fifth
 * 【dhoeis-laekk，第六】: sixth
 * 【dhoeis-qiet，第七】: seventh
 * 【dhoeis-bhoeix，第八】: eighth
 * 【dhoeis-gaeus，第九】: ninth
 * 【dhoeis-dapp，第十】: tenth

dhoeis-iet dus

first           group

"第一组，the first group"

dhoeis-bhoeix dhuix

eighth              team

"第八队，the eighth team"

dhoeis-dzis bhaenx

second        class

"第二班，the second class"

C. For counting the passage of years, months, days, or time
In Hlai culture, people use a way similar to the Chinese Zodiac to count years, and even days, e.g.,


 * year
 * 【boux-diu，鼠年】: the year of the mouse
 * 【boux-duis，牛年】: the year of the buffalo
 * 【boux-cauus，鱼年】: the year of the fish
 * 【boux-bous，兔年】: the year of the rabbit
 * 【boux-dang，龙年】: the year of the dragon
 * 【boux-zan，虫年】: the year of the insect
 * 【boux-ngas，马年】: the year of the horse
 * 【boux-mat，人年】: the year of the man
 * 【boux-nok，猴年】: the year of the monkey
 * 【boux-kai，鸡年】: the year of the chicken
 * 【boux-tety/hwanba，狗年】: the year of the dog
 * 【boux-bou，猪年】: the year of the pig
 * day
 * 【hwan-diu，鼠日】: the day of the mouse
 * 【hwan-duis，牛日】: the day of the buffalo
 * 【hwan-cauus，鱼日】: the day of the fish
 * 【hwan-bous，兔日】: the day of the rabbit
 * 【hwan-dang，龙日】: the day of the dragon
 * 【hwan-zan，虫日】: the day of the insect
 * 【hwan-ngas，马日】: the day of the horse
 * 【hwan-mat，人日】: the day of the man
 * 【hwan-nok，猴日】: the day of the monkey
 * 【hwan-kai，鸡日】: the day of the chicken
 * 【hwan-tety/hwanba，狗日】: the day of the dog
 * 【hwan-bou，猪日】: the day of the pig

For counting months, in Hlai culture, there are two kinds of calendar: one is following the Han's solar calendar, e.g.,


 * 1) 【zuu-nyaen-baen，一月、正月】: January
 * 2) 【hlaus-nyaen，二月】: February
 * 3) 【fus-nyaen，三月】: March
 * 4) 【caus-nyaen，四月】: April
 * 5) 【ba-nyaen，五月】: May
 * 6) 【dom-nyaen，六月】: June
 * 7) 【tou-nyaen，七月】: July
 * 8) 【ghou-nyaen，八月】: August
 * 9) 【fauus-nyaen，九月】: September
 * 10) 【fuet-nyaen，十月】: October
 * 11) 【fuetceuus-nyaen，十一月】: November
 * 12) 【fuethlaus-nyaen，十二月、腊月】: December

The other is following the Han's lunar calendar, e.g.,


 * 【zuu-hwan-nyaen，初一】: the first day of a lunar month
 * 【hlaus-hwan-nyaen，初二】: the second day of a lunar month
 * 【fus-hwan-nyaen，初三】: the third day of a lunar month
 * 【caus-hwan-nyaen，初四】: the fourth day of a lunar month
 * 【fuetceuus-hwan，十一日】: the 11th day of a lunar month
 * 【fuetceuus-hwan，十二日】: the 12th day of a lunar month
 * 【hlausfuetceuus-hwan，二十一日】: the 21st day of a lunar month
 * 【fusfuet-hwan，三十日】: the 30th day of a lunar month
 * 【hlausfuetceuus-hwan，二十一日】: the 21st day of a lunar month
 * 【fusfuet-hwan，三十日】: the 30th day of a lunar month

A. In Hlai language, one way to represent approximate numbers is to place two or three sequential numbers together, e.g.,
hlaus fus    (hom)

two    three  (classifier)

"两三（个），two or three"

ba  dom (hom)

five six. (classifier)

"五六（个），five or six"

hlaus fus     caus (hom)

two    three  four  (classifier)

"二三四（个），two, three, or four"

tou     ghou fauus (hom)

seven eight  nine  (classifier)

"七八九（个），seven, eight, or nine"

Usually, the numbers one and two are not put together.

B. Another way to represent approximate numbers is to use the word "dzaengsloepp" (大约/大概，probably), e.g.,
dzaengsloepp zaux fuet  dom  hom

probably        have   ten   six   classifier

"大概有十六个，probably have sixteen (ones)"

dzaengsloepp zaux  hlaus  fuet  boux he

probably         have  two     ten  year   accent

"大概有二十岁，about twenty years old" The word "dzaengsloepp" also can be shortened to "loepp",e.g.,

loepp      zaux tou      fuet  ceuus kuuengx

probably have  seven  ten  one     classifier for tree

"大约有七十一棵，probably have seventy-one (trees)"

C. Another way to represent approximate numbers is to use the word "dza" (余，a surplus/more than), e.g.,
hlaus dza       hom

two    surplus  classifier

"两个多，more than two (less than three)"

fuet dza       boux

ten  surplus  year

"十多年，more than ten years (less than twenty)"

The word "dza" can also be used with "loepp" to represent approximate numbers. The construction is "loepp" + zaux + number + "dza", e.g.,

Na loepp      zaux  fuet dza        boux  da  buuen  he.

he  probably  have ten   surplus  year  not  come   accent

"他大约有十余年没来了，He hasn't come (to this place) for more than ten years."

The word "zaux" in this construction can be omitted, e.g.,

Zuu hom         as                  neix  loepp      fuet  dza        gins.

one classifier  watermelon  this   probably  ten  surplus  classifier, about 500g

"这个西瓜大约有十多斤，This watermelon is a little more than 10 gins."

D. There are some synonyms, like "zuugit", "zuugitgit", "zuugitlaei", that can be used to represent approximate numbers. These words indicate the uncertainty of a small amount, e.g.,
Na naus        lax   zuugit       vi!

he  just/only   eat   a little bit accent

"他才吃一点点，He only ate a little bit.)"

Hou zaux  zuugitgit.

I       have  a little bit

"我有一点点，I have a little bit.)"

bhinx zuugitlaei

lack   a little bit

"缺了一点点，lacks a little bit."

The word "zuutom" (一部分，a part/some) represents the uncertainty of a given amount, e.g.,

zuutom hei zuutom  buuen

some    go   some    come

"一部分（人）去，一部分（人）来，Some (people) go, some (people) come."

paem na dhuus  zuutom  guen

meet  he  in        part         way

"在半路上碰见他，meet him part way"

Sometimes, the word "zuutom" means "half",e.g.,

zuu pas                       zuutom

one classifier for man  half

"一人一半，each one (gets) half"

Another word to represent the uncertainty of a given amount is "gei" (几, 若干, several), which implies the amount is less than ten, e.g.,

gei       hwan neix

several day    this

"这几天，these days"

Mansnyoengx zaux gei         zuen        aeu  buuen.

only                have  several  classifier man  come

"只有几个人来，Only a few people come (less than ten)"

E. The word "hloei" (多, many/much) can represent the uncertainty of a great amount; if the amount is even greater, this word, "hloei" is repeated, "hloeihloei", e.g.,
Bhous na hauux  hloei   duis                dhat.

village  he   that    many  water buffalo  very

"他那个村牛很多，There are a lot of buffalo in his village."

Dhuix fa  neix  zaux  uxaeu hloeihloei.

team  we  this have  man     so many

"我们这个队有许多人，We have so many people on this team."

When a certain amount is requested, the word "hloeiras" (多少，how many/much) can be used in an interrogative sentence, e.g.,

Meuu boux neix hloeiras      boux?

you     year  this how many  year

"你今年多大岁数？How old are you this year?"

Meuu zaux  hloeiras      zuen        hluuekghueng?

you    have  how many classifier  younger sister or brother

"你有多少个弟弟妹妹？How many younger brothers and sisters do you have?"

A.  Common classifiers
•  【hom，个、块、所、颗、粒、朵、元、座、盏、顶...】: most frequently used, and used with inanimate objects (including fruit, month, story, building, flower, money, mountain, light-stand, hat...), e.g.,

zuu hom         waeu

one classifier  bowl

"一个碗, a bowl."

•  【zuen，位】: it is only used with humans, e.g.,

hlaus zuen       bhiengs

two   classifier  soldier

"两个士兵, two soldiers"

•  【laus，个、位】: it is only used with males whether a baby, child, boy or young man, e.g.,

zuu laus         hluuek

one classifier  child

"一个男孩, a boy"

•  【hauus，个、位】: it is only used with females whether a baby, child, girl or young woman, e.g.,

hlaus hauus      hluuek

two    classifier  child

"两个女孩, two girls"

•  【lang，只】: it can be used with humans, animate objects and spiritual beings, e.g.,

fus    lang          kai

three classifier  chicken

"三只鸡, three chickens"

•  【kuuengx，棵】: it is used with larger plants (flowers use "hom"), e.g.,

caus kuuengx cai

four  classifier  tree

"四棵树, four trees"

•  【fans，件】: it is used with shirts or blouses, e.g.,

ba   fans       veengs

five classifier  shirt/top

"五件衣裳, five shirts or blouses"

•  【hyax，条、件】: it is used with trousers/pants, e.g.,

hlaus hyax        kous

two    classifier  pants

"两条裤子, two pairs of pants"

•  【ruet，条】: it is used with skirts, e.g.,

zuu ruet          riens

one classifier  the traditional Hlai skirt

"一条筒裙, a skirt"

•  【tos，套】: it is used with a suit of clothes or an outfit, e.g.,

zuu tos           veengs   kous

one classifier  shirt/top  pants

"一套衣服裤子, a suit or outfit having a matching top and bottom"

•  【tut，套】: it is used with a suit or outfit of clothes, e.g.,

zuu tut            veengs

one classifier  shirt/top

"一套衣服, a suit of clothes"

•  【dhanx，条、根】: it is used with linear objects, e.g.,

zuu dhanx      dhoei

one classifier  rope

"一根绳子, a rope"

dom dhanx     noms

six    classifier  river

"六条河, six rivers"

•  【viens，块，张】: it is used with massive or planar objects, e.g.,

tou     viens        noeng duis

seven classifier  skin     water buffalo

"七张牛皮, seven pieces of cow hides"

•  【rueis，块、张】: it is usually used with flat surfaced planar objects, e.g.,

hlaus rueis        aek    bou

two    classifier  meat  pig

"两块猪肉, two slabs of pork"

fus    rueis        noeng loei

three classifier  skin    muntjak

"三张麂子皮, three pieces of chamois (small antelope) hide"

•  【ban，头、只】: it is used with cows or horses, e.g.,

hlaus ban          gas

two    classifier  horse

"两匹马, two horses"

•  【pous/paus，堆】: it is used with a relative smaller pile (pous/paus is also a verb), e.g.,

zuu pous       van

one classifier  earth

"一堆土, a pile of earth"

zuu pous       guns

one classifier  firewood

"一堆柴, a pile of firewood"

•  【kun，堆】: it is used with a relative bigger pile, e.g.,，

zuu kun          muens

one classifier  rice in the husk

"一大堆稻谷, a large pile of rice"

•  【baep，把】: it is usually used with seedling (There is no wheat on the Island of Hainan/Hlai people's territory.), e.g.,

zuu baep      fan

one classifier  seedling

"一把秧, a handful of rice seedlings"

•  【hax，把】: it is usually used with rice, e.g.,，

zuu hax         muens

one classifier  rice

"一把稻子, one handful of rice"

•  【bhaeng，间】: it is usually used with a room or building, e.g.,

zuu bhaeng    blongs

one classifier  house

"一间屋子, a building/house"

zuu bhaeng   qiafei

one classifier  train

"一节火车厢, a box car"

•  【bhaengs，梭/颗、封】: it is usually used with letters (a written communication as one sent through the mail) a bullet or a firecracker, e.g.,

zuu bhaengs  veji

one classifier  bullet

"一梭/颗子弹, a bullet"

zuu bhaengs  dienx

one classifier  letter

"一封信, a letter"

•  【bhak，块】: it is usually used with flat objects, e.g.,

zuu bhak        gias

one classifier  glass

"一块玻璃, a piece of glass"

zuu bhak        qias

one classifier  paper

"一块硬纸片, a piece of cardboard"

•  【bheek，幅】: it is usually used with a picture or painting, e.g.,

zuu bheek      ueix

one classifier  picture/painting

"一幅画, a picture/painting"

•  【bhuek，把】: it is usually used with straw, e.g.,

zuu bhueks    ngwiengs

one classifier  straw

"一把稻草, a handful of straw"

•  【bhui，本】: it is usually used with books, e.g.,

hlaus bhui         qias

two    classifier  book

"两本书, two books"

•  【cax，座】: it is usually used with mountains, e.g.,

zuu cax         hwous

one classifier  mountain

"一座山, a mountain"

•  【ceuus，枝、秆】: it is usually used with a pen or stick, e.g.,

zuu ceuus     bhit

one classifier  pen

"一支笔, a pen"

•  【cueng，枚】: it is usually used with a needle, e.g.,

zuu cueng     guty

one classifier  needle

"一枚针, a needle"

•  【dhien，畦or 幅】: it is usually used with farmland (rectangular plots of land in a field, separated by ridges, usually for growing vegetables), also used with cloth, e.g.,

zuu dhien        van            bheuudaeis

one classifier  land/earth vegetables

"一畦菜地, a bed of vegetables"

zuu dhien      dhop

one classifier  cloth

"一幅布, a piece of cloth"

•  【dhun，户、家】: it is usually used with households, e.g.,

bhous fa    zaux  hlaus  fuet dhun        blongs.

Village our  have  two    ten   classifier  households

"我们村子有二十户人家, There are twenty households in our village."

•  【gas，辆、架】: it is usually used with a car or a plane, e.g.,

zuu  gas         qia

one  classifier  car

"一辆车, a car"

zuu gas         vabheny

one classifier  airplane

"一架飞机, an airplane"

•  【ghoeix，行、排】: a row, a line, e.g.,

fus    ghoeix     cai

three classifier  tree

"三行树, three rows of trees"

zuu ghoeix    qias

one classifier  word/letter

"一行字, one line of words"

•  【ha，缕】: it is usually used with light.

•  【hus，副】: it is usually used with playing cards, poker.

•  【hwoens，堆、块】: it is usually used with fields or objects that can be organized in a pile, e.g.,

zuu hwoens    guns

one classifier  firewood

"一堆柴火, a pile of firewood"

zuu hwoens   dax

one classifier  field

"一块水田, a field"

•  【hluut，层】: it means "layers" or "levels", e.g.,

fus    hluut        laeus

three classifier  the floor in building

"三层楼, three floors"

Van   neix zaux  fus      hluut        na.

Land this   have three  classifier  thickness

"这土有三层厚, This soil has three layers."

•  【ka，枝】: it is usually used with branches, e.g.,

zuu ka           cai

one classifier  tree

"一枝树枝, a branch"

•  【kok，棵】: it is usually used with mushrooms, e.g.,

zuu kok          dhety

one classifier  mushroom

"一棵菌子, a mushroom"

•  【koen，只】: it is usually used with one object in a pair, e.g.,

zuu kuen       zuugoems

one classifier  shoe

"一只鞋, a shoe"

zuu koen        fiek

one classifier  classifier

"半挑东西, a pole balanced on a shoulder by half a load being carried in the front and the other half being carried in the back (fiek: the action of carrying stuff on a shoulder becomes a classifier)."

•  【kou，张、顶】: it is usually used with mesh, e.g.,

zuu kou         ghoeis  hla

one classifier  net      fish

"一张鱼网, a fishing net"

•  【liemx，瓣】: it is usually used with a clove or segment of fruit, e.g.,

zuu liemx       coembhem

one classifier  grapefruit

"一瓣柚子, a piece of grapefruit"

•  【leep，叠】: it is usually used with thin objects like paper, e.g.,

hlaus leep         qias

two    classifier  paper

"两层纸, two sheets of paper"

•  【leeps，瓣、片、层】: it is usually used with thin objects

•  【luuengs，把】: it is usually used with a saw (tool for sawing)

•  【moux，种、类】: it means a "kind, sort", e.g.,

neix zuu  moux       hleny

This one  classifier good

"这一种好, This is a good one."

zaux hlenyhloei moux      muens

have many         classifier  rice

"有好多种稻子, There are many kinds of rice."

•  【paeng，串】: it is usually used with fruit, e.g.,

zuu paeng     zuuloengs

one classifier  betel nut

"一串槟榔, a cluster of betel nut"

•  【pienx，把】: it is usually used with knives e.g.,

zuu pienx      gas

one classifier  knife

"一把刀, a knife"

•  【puens，杆、根】: it is usually used with tree trunks or any bar-like or rod-like objects, e.g.,

zuu puens     cai

one classifier  tree

"一根树干, a stump (or tree trunk)"

zuu puens     bhit

one classifier  pen

"一支笔, a pen"

•  【raeis，块、片】: it is used with fields, e.g.,

zuu raeis         dax

one classifier  field

"一片田, a field"

•  【ras，棵，株】: it is usually used with grass or rice, e.g.,

zuu ras          gans

one classifier  grass

"一棵草, a blade of grass"

•  【rok，块】: it is usually used with hillside fields (fields far from a water source), e.g.,

zuu rok          ang

one classifier  field

"一块刀耕地, a field"

(ang: specifically, a burned up plot of land that is fertilized for future farming by the remaining ashes; an ancient farming way of Hlai people, but now forbidden by the CN government)

fus    rok           pos

three classifier hillside field

"三块旱地, three fields on the hillside"

•  【ruets，摞】: it is usually used with massive objects

•  【taeu，批、群】: it is usually used with a batch of goods or a group of animals, e.g.,

caty zuu taeu         liem

buy  one  classifier  sickle

"买一批镰刀, buy a bundle of sickles"

zuu taeu         dzeeng

one classifier  goat/sheep

"一群羊, a flock of goats"

•  【tuueng，把】: it is usually used with farm tools, e.g.,

zuu tuueng     rik

one classifier  rake

"一把耙, a rake"

•  【vaen，梳、下】: it is usually used with comb-like, comb-shaped objects, e.g.,

zuu vaen        hweek

one classifier  banana

"一梳芭蕉, a bunch of bananas"

or it is used for counting the number of times of pestling, e.g.,

ceek   fuet  vaen

pestle ten   classifier

"舂十下, pestle ten times"

•  【vans，张、页、幅、块】: it is usually used with paper products, e.g.,

zuu vans         qia

one classifier  paper

"一张纸, a piece of paper"

zuu vans         diets

one classifier  picture

"一幅照片, a photograph"

•  【voei，桶】: it is usually used with something that can be carried in a bucket, e.g.,

zuu voei         ghei

one classifier  rice

"一桶米, a bucket of rice"

•  【vong，嘟噜】: it is usually used with something formed as a cluster (tropical fruit is usually in clusters, such as coconuts, betel nuts), e.g.,

zuu vong       coemcai

one classifier  fruit

"一嘟噜果子, a cluster of fruit"

B. Classifiers for measurement
•  【mous，亩】: (Chinese acre) a unit of area to measure a land or field, about 667 square meters, e.g.,

zuu mous       dax

one classifier  field

"一亩田, one mu of field"

•  【dho，丈】: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, 1 dho is about 350 centimeters, e.g.

zuu dho          dhop

one classifier  cloth or textile

"一丈布, one zhang of cloth"

•  【qieux，尺】: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, 1 qieux is about 35centimeters, 10 qieux = 1 dho.

hlaus qieux        dhop

two    classifier  cloth or textile

"两尺布, two feet of cloth"

•  【cuns，寸】: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, about 3.5 cm, 10 cuns = 1 qieux.

fus     cuns         dhop

three  classifier  cloth or textile

"三寸布, three inches of cloth"

•  【hlaenx，庹】: the length of two arms, about the height of a person, about 5–6 feet.

•  【hwuup，拃】: the distance between the thumb and the middle finger pressed down on a surface in a straight line, about 15–20 centimeters, e.g.,

zuu hwuup    daeus

one classifier  length

"一拃长, one zuo length"

•  【tunx，节】: the length of a finger, about 6–9 centimeters.

•  【dhas，石】: a unit of weight, e.g., fuetdhas ghei, "十石米 (fuet: ten, ghei: uncooked rice)." 1 dhas is probably equal to 150 gins, about 75 kg.

•  【dhaeu，斗】: a unit of weight, e.g.,zuu dhaeu ghei，"一斗米 (zuu: one, ghei: uncooked rice)."10 dhaeu = 1 dhas; 1 dhaeu = 10 kax = 15 gins, about 7.5 kg.

•  【kax，升】: a unit of weight, e.g.,fus kax ghei, "三升米 (fus: three, ghei: uncooked rice)." 1 kax = 1.5 gins, about 0.75 kg.

•  【gins，斤】: a unit of weight, e.g.,zuu gins hla，"一斤鱼 (zuu: one, hla: fish)." 1 gins = 16 luuengx; 1 gins = 0.5 kg.

•  【luuengx，两】: a unit of weight, e.g., zuu luuengxnyaeus，"一两盐 (zuu: one, nyaeus: salt)." 1 gins = 16 luuengx; 1 gins = 500 g; so 1luuengx = 31.25 g

•  【dhun，吨】: a modern unit of weight, 1000 kg, e.g., fauus dhun ghoei，"九吨铁, a ton of iron (fauus: nine, ghoei: iron)."

C.  Classifiers derived from nouns or verbs
•  【kop，捧 or 把】: the original action of holding or carrying something in both hands becomes a measurement, e.g.,

zuu kop         ghei

one classifier  rice

"一捧米, one scoop of rice"

•  【koens，捆】: the original action of tying, binding or bundling up becomes a measurement, e.g.,

zuu koens      hya

one classifier  thatch or couch grass

"一捆茅草, a sheaf of thatch"

•  【bhiek，捆】: it is usually used with a bundle of objects that is carried on one's shoulders, e.g.,

zuu bhiek      guns

one classifier  firewood/sticks

"一捆柴, a bundle of firewood/sticks"

•  【zeems，撮】: the original action of picking up (with all five fingers) becomes a measurement, e.g.,

zuu zeems     nyaeus

one classifier  salt

"一撮盐, one pinch (using all five fingers) of salt."

•  【jims，撮】: the original action of picking up (with the thumb and forefinger/index finger) becomes a measurement, e.g.,

jims      zuugit      nyaeus

pick up a little of salt

"拈一点盐, a pinch (using only two fingers) of salt"

hlaus jims        nyaeus

two    classifier  salt

"两撮盐, two pinches of salt"

•  【fiek，担or 双】: the original action of carrying a pole (usually bamboo-made) on a shoulder that is used for measurements becomes a measurement for things that were carried on poles, e.g.,

zuu fiek         guns

one classifier firewood

"一担柴a bundle of firewood"

zuu fiek          zuugoems

one classifier shoe

"一双鞋, a pair of shoes"

•  【gok，杯、瓶】: a cup (or a bottle), originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

zuu gok         noms

one classifier water

"一杯水, a cup of water"

zuu gok          ghweis

one classifier oil

"一瓶油, a bottle of oil"

•  【waeu，碗】: a bowl, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

zuu waeu      tax

one classifier cooked rice

"一碗饭, a bowl of rice"

•  【boux/baux，岁】: a year, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

zuu fuet  ghou  boux

one ten  eight classifier

"十八岁, 18 years old"

•  【bhaem，围】: the original action of embracing something with two arms becomes a measurement, e.g.,

hlaus blaem      cai

two   classifier tree

"两围的树 tree size of two men's arms wrapped around it"

•  【comx，袋】: usually, objects that can be carried in bags that have become classifiers, e.g.,

zuu comx       ghei

one classifier rice

"一袋米, a bag of rice"

•  【ding，升】: a barrel (made of coconut shells), originally a noun, becomes a measurement, e.g.,

zuu ding        ghei

one classifier rice

"一升米, a barrel of rice"

•  【dhak，滴】: the original action is dripping; the meaning is "a drop", used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu dhak        noms

one classifier water

"一滴水, a drop of water"

•  【dzuen，挂】: the stalk bananas grow on, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

zuu dzuen      hweek

one classifier banana

"一大挂芭蕉, a stalk of bananas"

•  【fas，阵】: as a noun it means sky, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu fas           fun

one classifier rain/shower

"一阵雨, a (rain) shower"

•  【fiens，把】: as a noun it is the handle of farm tools, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu fiens       gwaek

one classifier hoe

"一把锄头, a hoe"

•  【fok，块】: as a noun it is a place, area, or region, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu fok          gom     neix

one classifier region this

"这块地方, this region"

•  【gieps，夹】: the original action is sheaving the thatch, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

hlaus gieps      hya

two. classifier thatch

"两夹茅草, two sheaves of thatch"

•  【guengs，篮、框】: a basket, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

zuu guengs    ghei

one classifier hoe

"一筐米, a basket of rice"

•  【guety，串】: a stick for threading some objects together, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

zuu guety       hla

one classifier fish

"一串鱼, a string of fish"

•  【neny，串】: a bamboo stick for threading some objects together, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

zuu neny        hla

one classifier fish

"一串鱼, a string of fish"

•  【neny，枝】:  as a noun it means a little branch, but it can also be used as a classifier with a branch or flower, e.g.,

zuu neny       ceeng

one classifier flower

"一枝花, a flower"

•  【ghongs，丛】: as a noun it means a grove, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu ghongs   hweek

one classifier banana

"一丛芭蕉树, a grove of banana trees"

•  【hoep，盒】: as a noun it means a box, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu hoep        cuax

one classifier matches

"一盒火柴, a box of matches"

•  【hwang，圈】: as a noun it means a ring, ferrule, or band, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu hwang     zuu  hwang     noms

one classifier one classifier  water

"一圈一圈的水, a ripple (of water)"

•  【hwaeng，垄】: as a noun it means a balk, that is to be heaped up with soil into ridges, e.g.,

zuu hwaeng    man

one classifier a general term for potato

"一垄甘薯, a ridge of sweet potatoes"

•  【hwoens，丘、床】: as a noun it means something lined up forming a pattern, e.g.,

zuu hwoen     dax

one classifier field

"一丘田, a field";

zuu hyoen     haeus

one classifier quilt

"一床被子, a quilt"

•  【op，抱】: the original action is holding a baby, e.g.,

zuu op            guns

one classifier firewood

"一抱柴火, an armful of firewood"

•  【puuen，代】: as a noun it means seniority in respect to age, and as a classifier it means "generations," e.g.,

fa   buuen  neix  bhaeis   zaux  fus      puuen      bhe

We come   here already  have  three  classifier  accent

"我们来这儿已有三代了, We've been here for three generations."

•  【rei，枝】: as a noun it means sprouts, and as a classifier it is used with sprouts.

•  【ruek，窝、笼、盒】: as a noun it means nest, cage, or box, and it can be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu ruek         bou

one classifier pig/hug

"一窝猪, a litter of pigs"

zuu ruek        kai

one classifier chicken

"一笼鸡, a cage of chickens"

zuu ruek        aenx

one classifier cake

"一盒点心, a box of cakes"

Sometimes, it is also used with urine, e.g.,

zuu ruek        dhou

one classifier urine

"一泡尿, a stream of urine"

•  【taen，场、趟】: as a noun it means altar (usually for worship of the demons or the ancestors), but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

bhaeis  vuek zuu  taen         dings.

Already do     one classifier  demon

"已经祭了一趟鬼, (The priest) already sacrificed once to the demons."

•  【taeng，桶】: a bucket, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

zuu taeng       noms

one classifier water

"一桶水, a bucket of water"

•  【tiep，夹】: the original action is picking up food up with chopsticks, but as a noun it means chopsticks, which can be used as a classifier referring to the food amount that is taken up with a pinch of the chopsticks, e.g.,

zuu tiep         bheuucai

one classifier vegetable

"一夹菜, a chopstick-pinch of food"

•  【tuck，包】: the original action is to wrap up; bind up; enclose; pack, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu tuek        dza

one classifier cigarettes

"一包烟, a pack of cigarettes"

•  【veeng，户】: as a noun it means lord or master, and as a classifier it can be used with households, e.g.,

zuu veeng

one classifier

"一户(人家), a household."

•  【zaemx，步】: as a noun it means step, and the verb is stepping or walking, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu ghwaen   zaemx

one hundred classifier

"一百步, one hundred steps"

•  【zeeng，穗、粒】: as a noun it means kernels (husks) of rice, but it can also be a classifier to mean the husks from a stalk of rice or something with larger kernels, e.g.,

zuu zeeng     muens

one classifier rice

"一穗稻子, a stalk of rice"

zuu zeeng     nyaeus

one classifier salt

"一粒粗盐, a grain of coarse salt"

2. Classifiers for modifying verbs
•  【faei，下、次、回】: time, e.g.,

taeix      zuu  faei

hit/beat one  classifier

"打一下, to hit/beat once"

•  【gaeis，回、次、遍】: time, e.g.,

na        bhaeis   rien            hlaus  gaeis

he/she already  say/speak  two    classifier

"他已经说了两遍了, He already said (it) two times."

•  【guen，趟、遍】: time, e.g.,

hei zuu  guen

go  one  classifier

"去一次, go (there) one time"

•  【caety，阵、遍】: it is usually used by women, it means "time", e.g.,

bhaeis fun  zuu  caety

Already rain one  classifier

"下了一阵雨, It already showered."

kai         bhaeis   hyoen        fus      caety

Chicken already  cock crow three  classifier

"鸡已叫了三遍, The chicken has already crowed three times."

•  【pienx，遍】: time, e.g.,

tak     zuu pienx

study one  classifier

"读一遍, read one time"

•  【caeu，阵】: it is usually used by the elderly, it means "time", e.g.,

zuu caeu       fun

one classifier  rain

"一阵雨, a shower (describing rain)"

zuu caeu       hwoet

one classifier  wind

"一阵风, a gust of wind"

•  【caens，顿】: classifier for meal, e.g.,

zuu caens      tax

one classifier  rice

"一顿饭, a meal"

•  【kok，脚】: feet, e.g.,

teeks zuu kok

kick   one classifier

"踢一脚, give (it) a kick"

•  【boms，口】: mouth, e.g.,

gaenys zuu  boms

bite      one  classifier

"咬一口, to take a bite"

•  【feek，口or 句】: mouth, e.g.,

lax  zuu feek         tax

eat one  classifier rice

"吃一口饭, to take a bite of food"

na        zuu feek         tun     ruus  da   rien

he/she one  classifier word  even  not say

"他一句话也不说, He did not even say a word."

•  【pui，阵、遍】: it means "time" and is used to count sleep, e.g.,

gaux zuu  pui

sleep one  classifier

"睡一觉, time spent in rest/sleep"

1.  Classifiers cannot be doubled as AA (e.g., lang lang), but can be used in a AB+AB pattern, e.g.,
Daty zuu  kun        zuu   kun        bheny.

bird  one  classifier  one  classifier  fly

"鸟成群成群地飞，Birds fly in groups."

2.  Classifiers cannot modify nouns alone; classifiers and numbers must be used together to modify nouns, e.g.,
Zuu lang       ba    neix  long  dhat!

one classifier  dog  this   big    really/truly

"这只狗真大！This dog is really big!"

==== 3.   Classifiers (for modifying verbs) and numbers must be used together and be placed after the verb as a complement; in some regions, the combination (number+classifier) would be placed before the verb, e.g., ==== Raux         fus    gaeis     =Fus    gaeis       raux

read aloud three classifier= three  classifier read

"读三遍，read three times"

Taeix zuu guen     = Zuu  guen     taeix

hit    one classifier = one  classifier  hit

"打一次，to hit/punch one time"

4.  In some occasions, the combination of numbers and classifiers exists alone, whereby they are not modifying any nouns or verbs, e.g.,
Hou caty zuu  hom,        meuu ngan  caty  zuu hom.

I       buy  one classifier  you      also  buy   one  classifier

"我买一个，你也买一个，I buy one, and you buy one."

Pronouns
There are three kinds of pronouns: the personal pronoun, demonstrative pronoun, and interrogative pronoun.

Personal pronouns
The different usage of "hou" and "dhes"

Asras dhuus hauux? A: Hou res!
 * 1) The women prefer to use "hou" when women talk to women, or women to men. They prefer to use "hou" in order to express themselves as a humble woman and to show respect to their listeners.
 * 2) When a senior member of the family (an elderly, parents, older brothers or sisters...etc.) is angry with a junior, he/she could choose to use "hou" or "dhes"; on the contrary, juniors are forbidden to use "dhes" when speaking with the seniors in conversation, or when they are angry at them.
 * 3) Among blood relatives, when men speak to women, they use "hou"; when men speak to men, either "hou" or "dhes" can be used; when juniors speak to a senior, they usually use "hou".
 * 4) Among in-laws, no matter whether men, women, seniors, or juniors, when they speak to each other, the word "hou" is preferable to express politeness.
 * 5) Between hosts and guests, no matter the gender or age, the word "hou" must be used to express politeness and respect.
 * 6) When someone asks a who question, "Asras…?" If it is answered with the first personal pronoun, "hou" is preferable over "dhes", e.g.,

Who is there? A: I accent

Q: Who is there? A: (It's) I. Q: Asras dhuus hauux? A: Dhes vi! Asras?
 * 1) If someone answers with the word "dhes", it expresses his impatient attitude. Usually, it occurs between family members' conversations, e.g.,

Q: Who is there? A: Me accent! Who?

"Q: Who is there? A: (it's) I! Who else?" Tuuen dhang duuengx hou nga; tuuen ca duuengx hou laeis
 * 1) When a man sings to a woman to express his love to her, he will definitely use "hou"; if he uses "dhes", she would think he is not sincere, e.g.,

{Go out} face give me look {go out} eye give me see

"Let me see your face; let me look into your eyes."
 * 1) When someone speaks rudely, he uses "dhes" instead of "hou".
 * 2) In today's Hlai society, the difference between "hou" and "dhes" is not so strict. Generally, women mostly use "hou"; men usually use "dhes". The word "hou" expresses politeness and respect to the listener, and the word "dhes" is more casual.

P.S. My language consultant said: the word "kun" is a simplified form of "kunaeu". Usually, in a conversation held between those of the same gender group, "kun" is used; in a conversation held between those of different gender groups, "kunaeu" would be used to show respect. Or, if a conversation were made up of those from both the older and younger generation, the younger generation would need to use "kunaeu" to show respect toward the elderly.

Personal pronouns can be both a subject and an object, e.g.,

Na taeix hluuek daty.

he hit child bird

"He hit the little bird."

dheuu toencai taeix na

take stick hit him

"take a stick to hit him"

Personal pronouns can also act as an attribute to indicate the possessive relation, e.g.,

Gha vou tun na hei vuek.

we follow words his to do

"Let's follow his words to do (it)."

Reflexive pronouns can be an appositive to another pronoun to emphasize the pronoun, e.g.,

Neix man hou zuenzauus vuek.

this is I self do

"I made it myself."

The auxiliary word "guu" can be placed before a personal pronoun to indicate the possessive relation. After placing the word "guu", the pronoun cannot be a subject, an object, nor an attribute, but only a predicate, e.g.,

Neix zuu lang kai man {guu na.}

this one CLF chicken is his

"This chicken is his."

Blongs neix man {guu dhes.}

house this is mine

"This house is mine."

Demonstrative pronouns

 * 【neix，这】: this; here; so; such
 * 【hauux，那】: that; there; so; such
 * 【max，那】: that; there

The word "neix" refers to someone, or something, at a close distance; the word "hauux" is farther away than the word "neix"; the word "max" is even farther. These three words also can be combined to the words "dhong" or "hi" and become compound words as below,
 * 【dhongneix，这】: like this
 * 【dhonghauux，那】: like that
 * 【hineix，这】: such
 * 【hihauux，那】: like that

Other demonstrative pronouns are:
 * 【uughwaix，别的】: other
 * 【ranx，每】: every

When a demonstrative pronoun acts as a subject, it is placed before the head word, e.g.,

Neix veengs baen.

this shirt/top new

"This (is) a new dress."

Hauux duis long.

that {water buffalo} big

"That (is) a big buffalo."

When a demonstrative pronoun combines with a number, a classifier, and a noun to form a noun phrase, the demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute, e.g.,

Hauux zuu kuuengx cai hleny baisias.

that one CLF tree good very

"That tree is very good."

When a demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute in a noun phrase, it can be placed either in the beginning or at the end of the noun phrase, e.g.,

Neix zuu lang kai ghweis.

this one CLF chicken fat

"This chicken is fat."

Zuu lang kai neix ghweis.

one CLF chicken this fat

"This chicken is fat."

If the linking verb is placed between the demonstrative pronoun and the noun, the demonstrative pronoun acts as a subject, e.g.,

Neix man hlaus lang kai enyx.

this are two CLF chicken little

"These are two chicks."

The words "neix", "hauux", and "max" can be a subject, an attribute, an adverbial, and an object; the word "uughwaix" can be a subject, an attribute, and an object; the compound words "dhongneix", "dhonghauux", "hineix", and "hihauux" can be a subject, an attribute, an adverbial, and a predicate, e.g.,

Dhongneix vuek yos?

{like this} do Q

"Is it done like this?"

Gong dhongneix hleny yos?

stuff {like this} good Q

"Is such a thing as this good?"

Yous rien dhonghauux.

don't say {like that}

"Don't say that."

Meuu dhonghauux yos.

you {like that} Q

"Are you like that?"

There is no declension in demonstrative pronouns to indicate singular or plural. So, the demonstrative pronouns need to go with the number and classifier, or the word "zuugit" to indicate singular or plural, e.g.,

Zuu kun daty hauux bheny he.

one CLF bird that fly accent

"The flock of birds (is) flying away."

Zuugit ghei neix ghei uuras?

some rice this rice whose

"Whose rice is this?"

When the demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute, it is usually placed after the head word, e.g.,

Buuemx neix long.

shrimp this big

"This shrimp is big."

Na qieus hloei neix.

he take many/much so/such

"He took so much."

Meuu dheuu raux hauux.

you take/want little/few so/such

"You took/want so little."

When the demonstrative pronoun is placed after the personal pronoun, or the interrogative pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun loses its meaning, and becomes an empty word that functions as an emphasis to make it sound fluent, e.g.,

Meuu neix kweis dheuu gong meshes?

you {empty word} want take stuff what

"What are you going to take?"

Uuras hauux gongx hou?

who {empty word} {look for} me

"Who is looking for me?"

The demonstrative pronoun "ranx" is only placed before the classifier, and can be doubled for emphasis, e.g.,

Ranx zuen lax zuu hom.

every CLF eat one CLF

"Everyone eats one."

Ranx ranx zuen uuaeu ruus lax zuu hom.

every every CLF man all eat one CLF

"Everyone eats one."

The demonstrative pronoun "uughwaix" can be an attribute and an object, e.g., gong uughwaix

stuff other

"other stuff"

aeu uughwaix

man other

"other's"

Zaux uughwaix cas da?

have other or not

"Do (you) have (any) other stuff?"

Interrogative pronouns

 * 【ras，哪，如何】: Where? Which? How?
 * 【uuras/asras，谁】: Who?
 * 【dhongras，怎样】: How?
 * 【qiras，何时】: When? What time?
 * 【hloeiras，多少】: How much? How many?
 * 【meshes，什么】: What?
 * others

The interrogative word "uuras" ("asras") can be a subject, an attribute, or an object, e.g.,

Uuras gongx hou?

who? {look for} me

"Who is looking for me?"

Meuu laeis uuras?

you see who?

"Who do you see?"

Na buuen blongs uuras?

he come house who?

"Whose house is he coming to?"

Just like personal pronouns, when the auxiliary word "guu" isplaced before an interrogative pronoun, it indicates a possessive relation, and the interrogative pronoun cannot be a subject, an object, nor an attribute, but only a predicate, e.g.,

Nyiu max man {guu uuras}?

cow that is whose?

"Whose cow is that?"

Veengs neix man {guu uuras}?

shirt/top this is whose?

"Whose shirt/top is this?"

The interrogative word "meshes" cannot be a subject, only an attribute or an object, e.g., Gong meshes vaeu hleny?

stuff what most good

"What is the best stuff?"

Na kweis dheuu meshes?

he want take what

"What does he want to take?"

The interrogative word "ras" cannot be a subject, only an attribute, an adverbial or an object., e.g., Na dhuus ras?

he exist where?

"Where is he?"

When the word "ras" acts as an attribute, it is usually used with a number and clasiifier, and is placed before a noun, e.g.,

Ras zuu hom blongs vaeu long?

which one CLF house most big

"Which house is the biggest one?"

When the word "ras" acts as an adverb, it is usually placed after the adjective, e.g.,

Coem neix long ras?

fruit this big how

"How big is this fruit?"

The interrogative word "dhongras" usually acts as an adverbial, and is most often is placed before a verb, but sometimes it can be placed after a verb, e.g.,

Dhongras lax ngan da bhaeis.

How eat also not finish

"There is more food than we can eat."

Ang neix ghwa dhongras?

hilly field this plant how?

"How is this hilly field to be planted?"

The interrogative word "qiras" most often acts as an adverbial, and must be placed before the verb, e.g.,

Meuu qiras hei qix?

you when go street

"When are you heading out for the streets (to buy something)?"

Na qiras beuubuuen ohyaeu?

he when {go back} school

"When is he going back to school?"

The interrogative word "hloeiras" most often acts as an object, e.g.,

Meuu zaux hloeiras, hou dheuu hloeiras.

you have {how many} I take {how many}

"However many you have, I will take them."

Negation

 * 【da，不】: not
 * 【yous，不要，别】: Do not
 * others

These adverbs modify verbs or adjectives, and usually are placed before the verbs or adjectives, e.g.,

Hansneix na da hei.

now he/she not go

"Today he won't go."

Gong neix reek he, yous lax.

stuff this bad accent don't eat

"This stuff (is) bad, don't eat (it)!"

When the adverb "da" modifies verbs or adjectives, and "zo", an accentuated emphatic particle, is placed at the end of the sentence, "da" means "not yet", e.g.,

Na da buuen.

he/she not come

"He won't come."

Na da buuen zo

he/she not come EMPH

"He hasn't come yet!"

When the adverb "da" is placed at the end of a sentence, then the word "da" signals a question, e.g.,

Meuu zaux kius da?

you have ball Q

"Do you have a ball?"

Degree

 * 【veau，最】: for expressing superlative degree
 * 【duix，最】: for expressing superlative degree (this is a loan word)
 * 【zangs，太】: too
 * 【nguenxges，更加】: more, even more (this is a loan word)
 * 【loeppvaix，恰恰，相当】: just right, just enough, exactly
 * 【dhat，很】: very
 * 【baisias，很，极，非常】: very much
 * others

These adverbs are usually placed before the adjectives to modify them, e.g.,

vaeu reek

most bad

"worst"

duix hlenymuuen

most beautiful

"most beautiful"

zangs fous

too hot

"too hot"

nguenxges hleny

even good

"even better"

loeppvaix hleny

exactly good

"just right"

But, the adverbs "dhat" and "baisias" are placed after the adjectives. These two words also can modify verbs, e.g.,

kaeix dhat

cold very

"very cold"

dzuuns baisias

quick {very much}

"very quick"

To increase the degree of something, two different adverbs can modify the same term, e.g.,

vaeu dzuuns baisias

most quick {very much}

"Very, very (extremely) quick"

Na vaeu vaet baisias

he/she most poor {very much}

"He is very, very (extremely) poor."

The word "dhat" can be doubled to increase the degree, e.g.,

Veengs neix hleny dhatdhat.

shirt/top this good {very much}

"This shirt/top is a very good one."

Scope, extent, or range

 * 【ruus，都】: all
 * 【ngan，也，都】: also, all
 * 【nyoengx，仅，只】: only
 * 【mans，仅，只】: only
 * others

These adverbs are usually placed before the verbs to modify them, e.g.,

Uengxtoengs ruus qim.

everyone all believe

"Everyone believes that."

Hou ngan vuek.

I also do

"I also do (that)."

Na mans/nyoengx dheuu zuu hom coem.

he/she only take one CLF fruit

"He only took one fruit."

These adverbs "mans" and "nyoengx" can be linked together to emphasize the voice, e.g.,

Na mans-nyoengx zaux zuu zuen hluuek.

he/she only have one CLF child

"He has only one child."

Timing

 * 【bhaeis，已经】: already
 * 【kuenx，先】: earlier, before, first, in advance
 * 【naeus，刚】: just, a moment ago
 * 【faets，正在】: in process
 * 【dhom，还】: still, yet
 * 【fan，就，便】: then (This word is usually used in a narrative when describing something.)
 * 【goms，就】: then (This word is usually used in a quote.)
 * others

These adverbs cannot be doubled for intensity, except for the adverb "naeus", e.g.,

Na {naeus naeus} buuen.

he/she just come

"He has just come."

Adverbs for indicating timing usually modify verbs, and are placed before the verbal phrase, e.g.,

Na naeus hei tuuen blongs.

he/she just {go out} from house

"He's just gone out of the house."

Na dhom da hei zo.

he/she still not go EMPH

"He hasn't gone yet."

Zuughanx hluet blongs hou fan laeis na.

{right after} enter house I then see he/she

"As soon as I entered the house, I saw him."

meuu buuen dhaens neix goms bhaeisyous hei beuu.

you come to here then never/not go back

"(Since) You came here, don't go back."

Meuu kuenx rien.

you first say

"You speak first."

However, the adverb "kuenx" can also be placed after the verbal phrase, e.g.,

Meuu rien kuenx.

you say first

"You speak first."

Duplication or continuation

 * 【loms，又，再，还】: also, again,
 * 【uuloms，又，再，还】: also, again,
 * 【toengs，互相】: each other
 * others

These adverbs modify verbs; the word "loms" or "uuloms" is placed before a verb, and the word "toengs" is placed after a verb, e.g.,

Meuu loms rien zuu gaeis.

you again say one CLF

"Repeat that once more."

Kun taeix toengs he.

they fight {each other} EMPH

"They fought each other."

The verb being modified by the adverb "toengs" can be modified by other adverbs, which are placed before the verb, e.g.,

Meuuda yous taeix toengs as!

{you.PL} don't fight {each other} EMPH

"Don't fight each other!"

Emphasis or transition

 * 【oms，又，却】: but, a signal word for a transition
 * 【naus，到底】: a signal word for emphasis
 * 【cuuslax，原来】: so, a signal word for a transition
 * others

These adverbs modify verbs or adjectives, and usually are placed before the verb or adjective, e.g.,

Baiscai long neix oms caeu.

big-tree big such but break

"Such a big tree, but (it) was broken!"

Aeu naus cas meuu vuek meshes

"Why do people scold you?"

A more unusual placement of these adverbs is at the beginning of a sentence, e.g.,

Cuuslax na dhuus max.

so he/she exist/in there

"So, there he is!"

Link nouns, pronouns, noun phrases, or verb-object phrases

 * 【uengx，和，与】: and
 * 【ku，跟，同，和】: and, to, with
 * 【nyuek，同，和】: and, with
 * others

That link nouns:

Ba ku bou zestoengs kweis lax tax.

dog and pig {fight each other} want eat rice

"A dog and a pig fight each other for food to eat."

Toengsdhun nyuek toengsblongs uengxtoengs ojiep.

wife and husband together learn

"A husband and (his) wife study together."

That link pronouns:

Hou uengx meuu uengxtoengs vuek gong.

I and you together do work

"I and you will work together."

That link noun phrases:

Hou duuengx meuu dheuu zuu hom coem long ku hlaus hom guengs.

I give you AUX one CLF fruit big and two CLF basket

"I'll give you the big fruit and two large baskets."

That link verb-object phrases:

Dhes hei qix lax tax ku lax bhiengx.

I go street eat rice and eat {sticky rice wine}

"I hit the streets to eat rice and drink wine."

These conjunctions can be added to more than two nouns, pronouns, or phrases; These conjunctions can even be placed before the first noun, pronoun, or phrase, e.g.,

Uengx hou uengx meuu uengx na hei caty gong.

and I and you and he go buy stuff

"I and you and he will go shopping."

These conjunctions can also function as prepositions, as can be seen in the chart below:

The word "nyuek" is used in Hlai's folk song, and can be linked with a verb, e.g.,

Baisdza zok nyuek cas, pasdza cas nyuek taeix.

Mother rebuke and scold, father scold and beat

"(The) mother rebuked and scolded, (the) father scolded and beat."

Some adverbs, like "loms" (又，却，again) and "hloeis" (顺便，by the way, 而且 and), can also function as conjunctions, e.g.,

Duis hauux long hloeis ghweis.

{water buffalo} that big and fat

"That buffalo is big and fat."

Guen neix bheeng loms muety.

road this wide and straight

"This road is wide and straight."

Link verbs, adjectives, and phrases

 * 【cuus，或者，还是】: or
 * 【cas，或者，还是】: or
 * 【cuusnaus，还是】: or
 * others

Meuu gaux cuus zongs ngan loepp.

You {lie down} or sit also allow

"You are allowed to either lie down or sit down."

Meuu hei cuus da？

You go or not

"Are you going or not?"

Veengs dhes neix hleny cas da？

shirt/top my this good or not

"Does my dress/top look good?"

naeusneix meuu hleny cas da？

Recently you good or not

"How have you been recently?"

Generally, the word "cas" is a synonym of "cuus." Both can be used in indicative and interrogative sentences. But, another synonym "cuusnaus" can only be used in interrogative sentences, e.g.,

Na hei cuusnaus hou hei？

He go or I go

"Is he going or should I go?"

Meuu kweis caty rasbluenx cuusnaus caty lauxmety？

You want buy pineapple or buy jackfruit

"Do you want pineapple or jackfruit?"

Link a single subordinate clause

 * 【hans，因为】: because
 * 【dosdzis，所以】: so
 * 【laeis，如果】: if
 * 【tom，但是】: but
 * 【dagoms，不然】: otherwise
 * others

Hans na da buuen, hou da hei bhe.

Because he not come, I not go accent

"Because he didn't come, I didn't go."

Na kueng caqias, dosdzis na kuengghweuu li.

He know script so he know principle

"Because he knows the script, he understands the principle."

Laeis meuu hei, hou goms dzoeng meuu.

If you go I then wait you

"If you go, then I'll wait for you."

qimax gha vaet baisias, tom hansneix da dhong qihauux bhe.

Before we poor {very much} but now not like before accent

"Before we were very poor, but now we are not like we were before."

Meuu hei, dagoms na hei.

You go otherwise he go

"You go, otherwise he'll go."

The word "dagoms" also means "not only" or "or", e.g.,

Na dagoms gieu laix dax, uuloms gieu kieux muens.

He {not only} know how plow field {but also} {know how} {reap rice}

"Not only does he know how to plow, but he also knows how to harvest."

Meuu fei guen hei, dagoms zongs qia hei.

You walk road go otherwise sit car go

"You (can) walk (there), or take a bus (there)."

Link two or more clauses
Gas dacaux lax gans, lax uengx noms.

Horse {not only} eat grass eat also water

"A horse not only eats grass, but also drinks water."

Na dacaux taeix meuu, taeix koms hou.

He {not only} beat you beat even me

"Not only did he beat you, he even beat me."

Dhes dacaux zaux pasghueng, zaux toep baisghueng.

I {not only} have {younger brother}, have even {younger sister}

"I not only have (a) younger brother(s), (but) I even have (a) younger sister(s)."

Generally, the word "danyoengx" or "dagoms" is the synonym of the word "dacaux", e.g.,

Duis neix danyoengx long kaux, uuloms doengs gans.

buffalo this {not only} big strength {but also} live grass

"The cow is not only strong, but it also eats grass quietly."

Na dagoms gieu laix dax, uuloms gieu kieux muens.

He {not only} know how plow field {but also} {know how} {reap rice}

"He not only knows how to plow the field, but he also knows how to harvest the rice."

Hans uupans fas fun, dosdzis hou gax buuen.

Because yesterday sky rain so I cannot come

"(Because) It was raining yesterday, so I couldn't come."

Parallel relationship
The conjunction words that express a parallel relationship are "uengx" (和, and), "ku" (和, and), and "nyuek" (和, and), e.g.,

Hou uengx meuu hei.

I and you go

"I'll go with you."

Uengx hou uengx meuu uengx na hei vuek gong.

And I and you and he go do work

"I will go to work with you and him."

Toengsdhun nyuek toengsblongs uengxtoengs ojiep.

Wife and husband together study/learn

"The husband and wife study together."

Hou hei qix caty veengs ku caty kous.

I go street buy shirt/top and buy pants

"I went shopping to buy a coat and to buy pants.

Dhes duuengx na lax zuu lang kai ku zuu lang ba.

I give him auxiliary one CLF chicken and one CLF dog

"I gave him a chicken and a dog."

Progressive relationship
The conjunctions that express a progressive relationship are "loms" (又, again), "hloeis"(并且, 而且, and), and similar phrases like "dacaux…koms…" (不但...而且...，not only... but also...), e.g.,

Na lax zuu feek loms zuu feek.

He eat one bite and one bite

"He eats (one) bite by (one) bite."

Gong neix fas hloeis ghety.

stuff this sour and hot

"This is sour and hot."

Na dacaux cas hou, cas koms/uengx meuu.

He {not only} scold me scold even/and you

"Not only did he scold me, but he even/also scolded you."

In the construction of phrases like "dacaux…koms…" ("not only…but also…"), the conjunctions "but also" ("koms", "uengx", or "toep") must be placed in the second clause, between the verb and the object.

Optional relationship
The conjunctions that express an optional relationship are "cuus" (或, or), "cas" (或, or), "cuusnaus" (或, or), "casnus" (或, or), and "dagoms" (或, or), e.g.,

Meuuda kweis hei geek hla cuus da?

You want go {look for} fish or not

"Are you going to go fishing or not?"

Gha caem cuus bhiek les?

We {carry by hand} or {carry by shoulder} Q

"Will we carry (it) with our hands or on our shoulders?"

Meuu kweis dheuu zuucoeis cuusnaus dheuu zuuyunx？

You want take litchi or take coconut

"Do you want to choose litchi or coconut?"

Transitional relationship
The conjunctions that express a transitional relationship are "tom" (但是, but), "oms" (却, but), and "tus" (但是, but), e.g.,

Na ghwaix Hlai, tom kueng rien tun Hlai

He {is not} Li but know say language Li

"He is not a Li, but he speaks the Li dialect."

Na kweis hei, oms wenysnaeis hwan

He want go but no day

"He's willing to go, but there's no time."

Conditional relationship
The conjunctions that express a conditional relationship are "laeis", "dalunx", e.g.,

Dalunx na rien dhongras, hou ngan hei

{no matter what} he say how I also go

"No matter what he says, I'll go."

Laeis na da buuen, hou goms hei lo

If he not come I then go accent

"If he doesn't come, then I'll go."

Causal relationship
The conjunctions that express a causal relationship are "hans" (因为, because), "dagoms" (不然, otherwise), e.g.,

Dhes da hei, hans zaux cok

I not go because have sickness

"I'm not going because I'm sick."

Fas fun, yous hei, dagoms ia cok

Sky rain don't go otherwise gain sickness

"It's raining. Don't go! Otherwise, you'll get sick."

A. The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after a verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.

 * 【dhuus，在】: in, at, on
 * 【tuuen，从】: from
 * 【ueks，里】: inside

Meuu doengs dhuus max hyo!

You live in there accent

"You live there!"

Meuu buuen tuuen ras?

You come from where?

"Where do you come from?"

However, as more and more young generation Li have mingled with Han culture, they have gradually adopted Chinese grammar, and have placed the prepositional phrase before the verb, e.g.,

Meuu dhuus max doengs hyo!

You in there live accent

"You live there!"

Meuu tuuen ras buuen?

You from where come

"Where do you come from?"

The word "ueks" can be placed after the preposition "dhuus", e.g.,

zongs dhuus ueks hauux

Sit in inside there

"Sit in (inside) there"

The prepositional phrase being constructed by the word "ueks" can also act as a subject, e.g.,

Ueks blongs neix mangshais baisias.

Inside house this dark very

"Inside of the house is very dark."

B. The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after the verb, and acts as a complement.

 * 【dhaens，到】: until
 * 【zok，往，向】: toward, to
 * 【dhuas，过】: through
 * 【buu，在】: on, in
 * 【beeng，沿】: along

Bhousaeu dzoeng meuu dhaens cop.

Guest wait you until night

"The guest(s) waited for you until night."

Fa hei zok ohyaeu.

We go to/toward school

"We are going to the school."

Aeu fei reuureuu dhuas ngaeix bhous.

People walk {back and forth} along edge village

"People walk back and forth along the outskirts of the village."

Ghais na pien buu huen.

Tell him wear on body

"Tell him to wear it."

Daty roeng buu peek goep maeis.

Bird chirping on east fence sugarcane

"The bird is chirping on the eastern fence of the sugar cane garden."

fei beeng ngaeix noms

walk along edge/bank river

"walk along the river bank"

C. The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before a verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.

 * 【niens，沿】: along

Na niens guen hauux hei ohyaeu.

He along road that go school

"He traveled along that road to school."

However, the prepositional phrase of "niens" can also be placed after averb, e.g.,

fei niens hyoen dax

walk along ridge field

"walk along the ridge of the field"

Prepositions related to method

 * 【aens，按】: by, according to (this is a loan word)

Kunaeu aens laeustaeng gieu ku gax buuen gauxtoengs.

They {according to} work strong and weak come distribute

"They distributed the work according to the capability of the laborers."

Prepositions related to reason, or purpose

 * 【guu ghais，为了】: for the purpose
 * 【uis，为了】: for (this is a loan word)
 * 【uislaeus，为了】: for (this is a loan word)
 * 【cuuslax，由于】: because of

vuuengx hwoek cuuslax meuu

disturb heart {because of} you

"upset because of you"

The word "cuuslax" is only used in poetry as above.

Veeng duis kweis beuu fan taeix duis, {guu ghais} duis dzuuns fei.

Master {water buffalo} want {go back} then hit {water buffalo} {in order that} {water buffalo} fast/quick walk

"The buffalo's owner wanted to go home and so hit the buffalo, in order to get the buffalo to walk fast."

Since more and more young generation Li have mingled with Han culture, sometimes they express the purpose by using the loan word "uis" or "uisliaeus".

A. The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after verbs, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.

 * 【toep，连】: even
 * 【koms，连】: even
 * 【goem，对，和，与】: to, with
 * 【ku，对，和】: to

Na vaet toep/koms fok gaux ngan wenysnaeis.

He poor even place {to sleep} also no

"He is so poor that he even has no place to sleep."

vuektun goem na.

sing with him

"Sing a song with him."

Baisdza rien ku na.

Mother say to him

"(His) mother told him."

However, because of the influence of Chinese grammar, the "ku" prepositional phrase can also be placed before the verb, e.g.,

Baisdza ku na rien.

Mother to him say

"(His) mother told him."

B. When a prepositional phrase, constructed by the preposition "dhuas," modifies an adjective as a complement, it indicates a comparison.

 * 【dhuas，过】: than

Ghueng baiscuty hlenymuuen dhuas kun hluuekkauus.

{Younger sister} youngest beautiful than plural {older sister}

"The youngest sister is more beautiful than her older sisters."

C. The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before the verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.

 * 【uengx，和，跟】: with

Na uengx enyxlauux taeixtoengs.

He with kids fight

"He fought with the child(ren)."

However, the prepositional phrase using "uengx" can also be placed after the verb, e.g.,

Na buuen doengs uengx hluuekpasghueng.

He come play with {young brother}

"He came to play with (his) little brother."

A. The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before the verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.

 * 【ia，被】: by
 * 【ghoems，被】: by
 * 【dheuu，把】: by using

Na ia ba gaenys he!

He by dog bite accent

"He was bitten by a dog!"

Hou ghoems na taeix bhe.

I by him hit accent

"I was hit by him."

Baisdza dheuu ghei roengx tax.

Mother use rice cook rice

"Mother cooked rice from grains of rice."

Structural auxiliary words
There are three words in the category of structural auxiliary words: "guu", "uu-", and "dhaens"

When the word "guu" is placed before a noun or a pronoun to indicate subordination, this combination functions as a possessive phrase, and can only be in the predicate of the sentence, e.g., Gong neix guu meuu.

Stuff this {belong to} you

"This is yours."

Blongs hauux man guu dhes.

House that is {belong to} me

"That house is mine."

However, the word "guu" can be omitted, e.g.,

Veengs neix veengs na.

shirt/top this shirt/top he/she

"This dress is hers."

The auxiliary prefix "uu-" can be added to some verbs or adjectives. After adding this prefix, the nominalized verb or adjective can be a subject, object, or an attribute, but cannot be a predicate, e.g., Uu-ghaens hleny.

AUX-red good

"The red one is good."

Hou lax uu-enyx.

I eat {the small one}

"I will eat the small one."

Neix man gong uu-lax.

This is stuff AUX-eat

"This is something that can be eaten."

Another structural auxiliary word is "dhaens". It is usually placed after a verb or an adjective, and is followed by a complement that indicates the result or degree of the action/situation, e.g., Kaeix dhaens nyan.

Cold {so as to} shiver

"It is so cold as to (make one) shiver."

Fas dhaens maeu nomshloei.

Sour {so as to} drool saliva

"It is so sour as to (make one) drool."

Na ghweis dhaens gax fei guen.

He fat {so as to} cannot walk road

"He is so fat that it's hard (for him) to walk."

Na hei dhaens ngaeix noms fan beuuluung.

He go arrive edge/bank river then {come back}

"He went to the riverside and later he will come back."

Past tense auxiliary word
The word "dhuas" is placed after a verb to indicate an action has already happened, e.g.,

Hou hei dhuas Bhakgengs.

I go AUX Beijing

"I have been to Beijing."

Meuu laeis dhuas na cuus da?

You see AUX he or not?

"Have you seen him?"

Hou qieng dhuas muixdhoeis neix.

I think AUX question this

"I thought about this question."

Acting-receiving auxiliary words
Both the auxiliary words "lax" and "dheuu" are often used to indicate the relationship of acting and receiving between an agent and a patient.

The original meaning of the word "lax" is "to eat", however, the meaning changes when it acts as an auxiliary word; the word "lax" is usually placed after the person-object in double-object sentences, even when the thing-object is absent.

Pashlaus hou duuengx na lax zuu lang ba.

{Older brother} my give him AUX one CLF dog

"My brother gave him a dog."

Meuu dun hou lax tun Hlai.

You teach me AUX language Li

"You teach me the Li's language."

Hou rien duuengx na lax.

I say to him AUX

"I spoke to him."

The original meaning of the word "dheuu" is "to take", however, the meaning changes when it acts as an auxiliary word, e.g.,

Na duuengx hou dheuu zuu hom coem.

He give me AUX one CLF fruit

"He gave me one fruit."

Zuu hom zuuyunx neix duuengx meuu dheuu.

One CLF coconut this give you AUX

"This coconut is for you."

Generally, the word "lax" and "dheuu" are exchangeable.

Indicative mood
There are several words used in the indicative mood, like "lo", "bhe", "ve/vi", "he", "zu/zo", and "rus"

A. 【lo, 了】：this word indicates that something is in the process, or is forth coming, and it expresses the feeling of hope or surprise, e.g.,
Fas fun lo.

sky rain accent

"It's going to rain."

Meuu dhongneix vuek goms da dhiu lo.

you {like this} do then not right accent

"It is not right for you to do this."

B. 【bhe, 啊】：this word indicates something has already happened, and it usually does not express the subjective feeling, e.g.,
Fas fun bhe.

sky rain accent

"It is raining (it rained)."

Aeu reek hauux hlaeux bhe.

person bad that die accent

"That bad man died."

Man hauux hleny lax bhe.

potato that good eat accent

"That sweet potato was delicious."

C. 【ve/vi, 的, 了】：this word indicates that the speaker is explaining something, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g.,
Qias neix ghwaix hou taeis ve.

letter this {is not} I write accent

"This word is not what I wrote."

Meuu duuengx hou goms bhaeis ve.

you give I then finish accent

"Give (it to) me, then it's done."

D. 【he，啦】：this word indicates something has already happened, and it does not express the subjective feeling, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g.,
Dhes vuek gong bhaeis he.

I do work finished accent

"I finished (my) job."

E. 【zo/zu，还…呢】：this word indicates something is a fact or true, in which the speaker tries to persuade others, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g.,
Hla dhom hlou zo.

Fish still alive accent

"The fish is still alive."

Na dhom da vuek zo!

He still not do accent

"He hasn't done it yet."

Fas da fun zo!

Sky not rain accent

"It hasn't rained yet."

Sometimes the words "zo/zu" can have "ho" or "nex" added to them to put an emphasis on the mood, e.g.,

Aeu reek hauux da hlaeux zuho!

person bad that not die accent

"Why hasn't the bad man died yet?"

Hou da laeis meshes zunex!

I not see anything accent

"I haven't seen anything!"

F. 【rus，呢】：this word indicates that something is not sure, and the speaker's tone is mild and indirect, tactful, e.g.,
Hwanneix na da buuen rus.

today he not come accent

"He won't come today."

Fa neix zuu tienx zans zuu tienx luei, da laeis rus.

we this one {fish's name} up. one {fish's name} down not see accent

"(A fish said:) We fish swam back and forth, (you) did not see."

Interrogative mood
There are several words used in the interrogative mood, like "hos", "yos", "os", "hyos", "zuumos", "huux", "hauux", "yax", "nex/nix", "zuurasve", "bas/vixbas", and "zuuras/cuusras".

A. 【hos，yos，os，hyos, zuumos，吗】：these words are used in common interrogative sentences, e.g.,
Meuu da hei vuek gong hos?

you not go do work Q

"Don't you go to work?"

Hwanneix na da buuen yos.

today he not come Q

"Isn't he coming today?"

Neix man {guu meuu} os?

this is yours Q

"Is this yours?"

Na man pasghueng meuu hyos?

he is {younger brother} your Q

"Is he your younger brother?"

Meuu beuu ngop dhang hou vi zuumos?

You {come back} think face my accent Q

"You came back (because) you are thinking of me?"

B. 【huux，hauux，呢，呀】：these words are used in sentences with an interrogative pronoun, e.g.,
Meuu caty gong meshes huux?

you buy stuff what Q

"What do you buy?"

Meuu uuras hauux?

you who Q

"Who are you?"

C. 【nex/nix，yax，呢，呀】：these words are used in common interrogative sentences, e.g.,
Gha uengxtoengs kweis caep cas caem nix?

we everyone AUX {carry by hands} or {carry or shoulders} Q

"Do we carry (it) with our hands or carry (it) on our shoulders?"

Neix {guu asras} yax?

this whose Q

"Whose is this?"

D. 【zuuras/cuusras，吗】：these words are used in interrogative sentences where the speaker inquires by questioning closely, e.g.,
Hwanneix hou uengx na kweis hei Damxax, meuu loms da hei zuuras?

today I and he auxiliary go, Sanya you again not go Q

"Today I'm going to Sanya with him, aren't you going?"

Kun uengxtoengs vuek gong, meuu oms da vuek cuusras?

they everyone do work you but not do Q

"Everyone is working, but why aren't you?"

E. 【zuurasve，bas/vixbas，吧，了吧】：these words express a possibility, e.g.,
Na buuen zuurasve?

he come Q

"Did he come?"

meuu bhaeis cuis ang vixbas?

you already burn field Q

"Did you already burn the field?"

meuu kweis hei bas?

you AUX go Q

"Are you going to go?"

Imperative mood
There are several words used in the imperative mood, like "as", "bas", "res", "bhislo".

A. 【as，吧，啊】：this word is used to enjoin or to exhort someone to join in to do something, and the tone is soft and gentle, e.g.,
Meuuda dzueis gas fa as!

you look horse we IMP

"Look at our horses!"

Goms dhonghauux as！

then {like that} IMP

"That's it!"

B. 【bas，啊，吧】：this word is used to command, to request, or to exhort someone to do something, e.g.,
Meuu dheuu bas!

you take IMP

"Take it!"

Meuu dzuuns hei bas!

you quickly go IMP

"Quickly go!"

Duuengx hou zuu hom ghaeix bas!

give me one CLF {cucurbita gourd} IMP

"Give me a gourd!"

C. 【bhislo，咯】：this word is used by one with a discontented mood to command, to request, or to hasten someone to do something, e.g.,
Zoen bhislo!

sleep IMP

"Go to sleep!"

Vuek dzuuns bhislo!

do quickly IMP

"Do it quickly!"

Hansneix bhaeis zaux caqias gha Hlai, uengxtoengs guulax tuuen kaux o bhislo!

now already have script we Li, everyone should out. strength learn IMP!

"Now that we Li already have a script, we should do our best to learn it!"

Sometimes the word "bhislo" is also used to put an emphasis on the indicative mood, e.g.,

Meuu hluumsghweuu mos？ Neix man caqias Hlai bhislo!

You NEG-know Q? This is script Li accent!

"Don't you know? This is Li people's script!"

D. 【res，吧】：the usage of this word is similar with the word "bas", however, the tone of the word "res" is kind and warm, e.g.,
Meuuda dzuuns lax res!

you quickly eat IMP

"Come on, eat quickly!"

Hluet buuen res!

enter come IMP

"Come on in!"

Hyaeu dhe res!

drink tea IMP

"Drink (some) tea!"

Exclamatory mood
There are several words used in the exclamatory mood, like "ho", "a", "aei", "aiho", and "o". These words strongly express the speaker's feeling, e.g.,

Meuu rien dhiu dhat ho!

you say right very EXCM

"You're right!"

Yous taeixtoengs a!

don't {fight each other} EXCM

"Don't fight!"

Usually, these words are placed in the end of a sentence; however, sometimes these words act as one word sentences, e.g.,

O! Pasceuus hauux hleny dhat o!

EXCM guy that good very EXCM

"Ah! That young man is great!"

Aei! Bhaeis poens he.

EXCM already break accent

"Oh! It's broken."

Aiho! Cok baisias ho!

EXCM pain {very much} EXCM

"Oh! It's painful!"

Onomatopoeic words
Onomatopoeic words for expressing the feeling of surprise, exclamation, or agreement. Usually, these words are independent/separated from a sentence or clause, e.g.,

Aidza! Cok raeis ha!

Ouch! Pain intestines accent

Oh dear! What stomach pains!"

Aiho! Cok baisias ho!

Ouch! Pain {very much} accent

"Oh, what great pain!"

Ihyos! Noms bhaeis long bhe!

Ah! River already big accent

"Yo! The water has gone up!"

Isdzos! Neix man meshes?

Mmm! This is what

"Oh, what is this?"

However, some onomatopoeic words can go with or within a sentence or clause, e.g.,

Euu, dhonghauux {} bhe!

Yes, that (is) accent

"Yes, just like that!"

Na bhaeis euu cas da?

He already agree or not

"Did he already agree or not?"

Onomatopoeic words for imitating human, animate, or nature sounds，e.g.,

Hluuek'ueng raeux hihi dhuus hauux.

Girl laugh in there

"The girl laughed there."

Fas fun fosfos bhe.

sky rain accent

"It is raining."

Gaet fan loms roeng, "Beets! Beets! Beets!"

Frog(with-long-legs) then again call

"The frog called again, "Ribbit! Ribbit! Ribbit!"

More onomatopoeic words below:

The construction of phrases and their basic rules in Hlai
There are five kinds of phrases: the coordinative phrases, the attribute phrases, the verb-object phrases, the complement phrases, and the subject-predicate phrases.

1. Coordinative phrases
The method used to coordinate equivalent elements in a coordinative phrase is to use conjunctions, but another method is not to use conjunctions. The nouns and pronouns sometimes use the conjunctions, sometimes they do not.

Usually, the verbs and adjectives need conjunctions.

taeix loms cas

beat and scold

"beat and scold"

fas hloeis ghety

sour and hot

"sour and hot"

However, when the verbs and adjectives are doubled, there is no need for conjunctions.

2. Attribute phrases
The elements in the attribute phrases are not equivalent; one element is the head word, and the other element is the modifier that modifies the head word. Usually, the head word is a noun, a verb, or an adjective.

A. Noun as the head word
Usually, the modifier is placed after the noun head word.

a.  Noun (the head word) + noun

b.  Noun + adjective

noms ghan

water cold

"cold water"

veengs baen

shirt/top new

"new shirt/top"

The word "enyx" (小, small) is the exception where the modifier is placed before the head word, e.g.,

enyx veengs

small shirt/top

"kid's shirt (it also means brassiere)"

enyx duis

small {water buffalo}

"calf (young water buffalo)"

enyx dziengx

small finger

"little finger (pinkie)"

c.   Noun+ verb

fok gaux

place sleep

"a place for sleeping"

daty bheny

bird fly

"(a) flying bird(s)"

d.  Noun+ pronoun

pashlaus hou

{older brother} my

"my older brother"

blongs hauux

house that

"that house"

e.   Number + classifier + Noun (the head word)

The modifier, which is constructed with a number and classifier, must be placed before the head word.

fus zuen aeudza

three CL {old man}

"three old men"

hlaus hom dzuuem

two CL egg

"two eggs"

f.    Attribute phrases influenced by Chinese

Like Chinese, these modifiers are placed after the head word, and most of these words are loan words, e.g.,

Noun + noun (the head word)

Dongxgoknaengsmiens

China      people

"Chinese people"

Adjective + noun (the head word)

hiuxdius odex

superior student

"superior student"

Verb + noun (the head word)

goeisgiet muixdhoeis

resolve   problem

"resolving (the) problem"

B. Verb as the head word
The modifiers that modify verbs are the adverbs, adjectives, pronouns, nouns, numbers, or verbs. Usually, the monosyllabic modifier is placed before the head word; the disyllabic/doubled adjective, the pronoun, or the number can be either placed before or after the head word, e.g.,

a. Adverb + verb
da oep

not love/like

"don't like"

bhaeis lax

already eat

"already ate"

yous rien

Don't say

"don't say"

naeus buuen

just come

"just came"

ais lax

{not willing to} eat

"not willing to eat"

b. Adjective + verb
dzuuns rien

quick say

"(be)quick (to) say(it)" (it means out with it)

hleny lax

good eat

good (to) eat" (it means delicious)

gin lax

hurry eat

"busy eating"

c.  Noun + verb
cai    vuek

wood make

"made of wood"

uuhaux   hei

tomorrow go

"(will) go tomorrow"

d. Verb + verb (the head word)
oep lax

like eat

"like to eat"

hei dzok

go steal

"go (and) steal"

gaux      dzueis

{lie down} look

"reading lying down"

Verb (the head word) + disyllabic/doubled adjective
dais dais   fei= fei    dais   dais

slow slow walk

"慢慢走，walk slowly" (This is also used to say good bye.)

dzuuns dzuuns raux = raux  dzuuns dzuuns

quick    quick    read

"快快读，read quickly"

hleny hleny rien = rien hleny hleny

good good  say

"好好说，say (it) nicely"

liloek vuek= vuek liloek

dark   do

"漆黑做，do (it in) darkness"

f.   Pronoun + verb (the head word), or Verb (the head word) + Number
dhonghauux nyop = nyop dhonghauux

like that       sew

"那样缝，sew like that"

''dhongras vuek? = vuek dhongras?''

how          do

"怎么做？How is it to be done?"

''qiras  hei? = hei qiras?''

When go

"何时走？When (is it time to) go?"

g. Number+ verb (the head word), or Verb (the head word) + Number
zuu gaeis       hei = hei zuu gaeis

one classifier  go

"去一趟，(make) a trip" (means to run an errand)

fus    faei          taeix= taeix fus faei

three classifier beat

"打三下，beat (something) three times"

zuu kuuengx  zuu  kuuengx  ghwa= ghwa zuu kuuengx zuu kuuengx 

one classifier one  classifier  plant

"一棵一棵地种，plant one by one"

zuu boms       zuu  boms       lax= lax zuu bomszuu boms

one classifier one  classifier  eat

"一口一口地吃，eat one (bite) at a time"

C. Adjective as the head word
The modifiers that modify adjectives are adjectives, adverbs, or pronouns. Usually, when the modifier is an adjective or adverb, the modifier is placed before the head word, e.g.,

a. Adjective+ adjective (the head word)
hleny coem

good sharp

"so sharp"

reek coem

bad sharp

"not sharp"

b. Adverb + adjective (the head word)
duix reek

most bad

"worst"

bhaeis reek

already bad

"already (gone) bad"

Only few adverbs, like "dhat" (真, 很, really, very) or "baisias" (非常, 极, very much, most), are placed after the head word, e.g.,

c.  Adjective (the head word) + adverb
dzuuns dhat

quick   very

"very quick"

hleny baisias

good {very much}

"very good"

Also, when the modifier is a demonstrative pronoun, interrogative pronoun or noun, the modifier is placed after the head word, e.g.,

d. Adjective (the head word) + demonstrative pronoun
vaet neix

poor this

"this poor"

long dhongneix

big {like this}

"this big"

peek dhonghauux

high {like that}

"that high"

e.  Adjective (the head word) + interrogative pronoun
bheeng ras?

wide     How?

"How wide?"

hloei           ras?

many/much how?

"How many/much?"

f.   Adjective (the head word) + noun
long nyiu

big  bull

"big as a bull"

bheeng laengs

wide     sea

"wide as the sea"

The construction of the phrase above actually is: Adjective (the head word) + dhong/bhaen + noun, the word "dhong" (像, as, like) or "bhaen" (像, as, like) is omitted, e.g.,

long (dhong) nyiu

big   as          bull

"big as a bull"

3. Verb-object phrases
The verb is the head word, and the object can be a noun, a pronoun, a number, or a verb. Usually, the verb is placed before the object, e.g.,

A. Verb (the head word) + noun (object)
lax tax

eat rice

"eat rice (the meaning is to eat)"

dzueis qias

look    book

"read book (the meaning is to read)"

B. Verb (the head word) + pronoun (object)
dheuu hauux

take    that

"take that one"

ngwaety meuu

call        you

"(I'll) call you"

bhiek                          meshes

{carry (something) on shoulder} what?

"carry what"

C. Verb (the head word) + verb (object)
dhas rien

fear  say

"怕说，fears to say"

auux vuuek

dare do

"dare to do (something)"

D. Verb (the head word) + number (object)
caty zuu hom

buy one CL

"buy one"

lax fus   waeu

eat three CL

"eat three bowls (of food)"

E. Verbal adjective (the head word) + noun (object)
Some verbal adjectives can act as the head word with the noun as the object, e.g.,

leis aeu

thin people

"(makes) people thin"

ghweis aeu

fat      people

"(makes) people fat"

4.  Complement phrases
The Complement phrases include both a verb-complement phrase and an adjective-complement phrase.

A. Verb-complement phrase
The verb is the head word, and the complement can be a verb, an adjective, ora number with a classifier. The verb is placed before the complement.

a.  Verb (the head word) + verb (complement) fei   hluet

walk {go into}

"walk in"

dheuu buuen

take   come

"plan to come"

b.  Verb (the head word) + adjective (complement)

lax kuuem

eat full

"ate (until) full (stuffed)"

riemx hleny

fix     good

"fixed well"

roengx fui

cook   cooked

"cooked thoroughly"

c.   Verb (the head word) + number (complement)

fei   zuu guen

walk one CL

"(make) a trip" (means to run an errand)

fun ba hwan ba   cop

run five day  five  night

"(it) rained five days and five nights"

d.  Verb (the head word) + noun (complement)

In this case, the verb must be an intransitive verb, and the phrase can be an independent clause or a predicate.

bhaeis hlaeux duis                he.

already die      {water buffalo}  accent

"The water buffalo already died."

B. Adjective-complement phrase
The adjective is the head word, and the complement can be a verb, an adjective, or a number with a classifier. The complement indicates the result of the head word, so usually the auxiliary word "dhaens" is placed between the complement and the head word.

a.  Adjective (the head word) + dhaens + verb (complement)

kaeix dhaens nyan

cold  {as to}     shiver

"(so) cold as to shiiver"

reek haeis dhaens asras  ruus  ais                  dheuu

bad smell {as to} who all     {not willing to}  take

"(so) foul smelling as to not one is willing to take (it)"

b.  Adjective (the head word) + dhaens + adjective (complement)

gheuu dhaens ghau

thin    {as to}     transparency

"(so) thin as to be transparent"

fui        dhaens  ghaens

cooked {as to}    red

"(so) cooked (hot) as to become red"

c.   Adjective(the head word) + number (complement)

long fus   boux

big  three CL/year

"three years older"

hloei zuu hom

many one CL

"one more"

peek zuutom ghwous

high half       head

"a half-head taller"

d.  Adjective (the head word) + noun (complement)

In this case, the adjective acts not as an attribute to the noun, but functions as expository to the noun. The phrase can be an independent clause or a predicate.

Long hwoet bhe！

big wind    accent

"The wind (is) strong!"

Cok bok       dhat  lo！

hurt stomach very accent

"A stomachache! (very painful)"

5. Subject-predicate phrases
This kind of phrase is constructed by the subject and the predicate; usually, the subject is a noun or a pronoun, and the predicate is a verb or an adjective.

Wenysnaeis aeu     rien  na  reek.

no              people  say   he bad

"No one said he (is) bad."

Uengxtoengs ruus rien  gong  neix fas.

everyone       all     say   stuff    this   sour

"Everyone (all) says this stuff (is) sour."

Daty bheny lo.

bird  fly        accent

"Birds have flown (away)."

Na buuen lo.

he come    accent

"He has come."

The construction of the subject-predicate phrase is the same as the attribute phrase.Usually, if there is an element, like an accent, an adverb, or a noun, that is either placed after or before the phrase, then it is a subject-predicate phrase. See the chart below:

Sentence construction and the basic rules
blongs dhuus  ngaeix         noms hauux

house in/exist   edge/bank river    that

"the house that (is) on the bank of the river"

pashlaus     hou  uengx  pasghueng          meuu

{older brother} my  and     {younger brother}  your

my older brother and your younger brother

The statements above are incomplete sentences. But, when we add some critical words, they become complete sentences to communicate a complete thought that makes sense to the listeners or readers, e.g.,

Blongs hauux dhuus   ngaeix         noms  hauux.

house  that     in/exist edge/bank  river    that

"That house (is) on the bank of that river."

Pashlaus     hou  uengx  pasghueng          meuu  ngan  gaengxnaengs.

{older brother} my  and     {younger brother}  your    also    worker

"My older brother and your younger brother (are) both workers."

The chart below presents the grammatical elements that construct a sentence.These elements are a subject, a predicate, an object, a complement, an attribute and an adverbial phrase.

Subjects
The subject is placed before the predicate; and either the nouns, pronouns, numbers, or phrases can be the subject.

Predicates
The predicate is placed after the subject to provide information about the subject. Usually, verbs or adjectives are the predicate; however, nouns, pronouns, and phrases can also be the predicate.

Passive voice
In the examples above, the subjects are the actors who act out the actions; however, the subjects can also receive the actions, which is called passive voice. Auxiliary words like "ia" or "ghoems" can be used to denote passive voice, e.g., Kai        ghoems  dauxmuty gaeny  bhe.

Chicken by          fox             bite      accent

"A chicken was bit by a fox." Bhous hauux ghoems fei   cuis  lo.

Village that     by           fire burn  accent

"That village was burned by fire."

Objects
An object follows a verb. However, if the sentence is passive voice, the object can be placed before the verb phrase. Usually, a noun, pronoun or phrase can act as an object; sometimes, a number or verb can also be a subject, e.g.,

Double objects (with giving-receiving relation)
The construction is Verb + person-object + lax/dheuu + thing-object, e.g.,

Baisdza duuengx na lax zuu ruet riens.

Mother give her {auxiliary word} one CL skirt

"Mother gave her a skirt."

Hou dun meuu lax tun Hlai.

I teach you {auxiliary word} language Li

"I teach you the Li lauguage."

Pashlaus duuengx pasghueng dheuu zuu hom zuucoeis.

{older brother} give {younger brother} auxiliary one CL litchi

"The older brother gave (his) younger brother a litchi (a kind of fruit)."

The auxiliary word "lax" can be replaced by the verb "duuengx" (给, give), then the construction becomes Verb + thing-object + duuengx + person-object, and the objects generally cannot be omitted, e.g.,

Hou caty coembhans duuengx meuu.

I buy {longan (fruit)} give you

"I bought longan (to) give to you."

Baisdza caep noms duuengx pasghueng.

Mother carry water give {younger brother}

"The mother carried water (to) give to the younger brother."

Hluuekkauus roengx tax duuengx baisghueng.

{Older sister} cook rice give {younger sister}

"The older sister cooked rice (to) give to the younger sister."

Sometimes, the verb "duuengx" (给, for) can be placed both before the thing-object and the person-object, then the sentence construction becomes Verb + duuengx + thing-object + duuengx + person-object, e.g.,

Na duuengx veengs duuengx hou.

He give shirt/top give me

"He gave a shirt to me."

Pasdza da duuengx nomstaengs duuengx dhes.

Father not give sugar give me

"(My) Father did not give me sugar."

When both speaker and listener are clear what the thing-object is, or the subject itself is the given thing, the thing-object can be omitted, but the auxiliary needs to be kept, e.g.,

Meuu duuengx na dheuu.

You give him {auxiliary word}

"You give it to him."

Zuu pienx enyx gas neix duuengx meuu lax.

One CL small knife this give you {auxiliary word}

"This small knife (was) given (to) you."

Zuu lang kai neix duuengx meuu lax.

One CL chicken this give you {auxiliary word}

"This chicken (was) given (to) you."

Double objects (without giving-receiving relation)
Although some verbs in double-object sentences do not imply the giving-receiving relation, the auxiliary word "lax", which indicates that the subject is "helping" the person-object, is still needed. e.g.,

Hou reengs meuu  lax.

I       move    you    auxiliary word (help)

"我帮你搬，I will help you (to) move."

Meuu laix   na    lax.

You    plow  him auxiliary word (help)

"你帮他犁田，You help him (to) plow."

Baisdza caep  hluuekbaiskaux  lax.

Mother   carry   daughter            auxiliary word (help)

"母亲帮女儿挑，A mother helps her daughter carry (the stuff)."

The auxiliary word "lax" can be followed by another object, e.g.,

Taeix  dhes lax                            tax.

Put     me    auxiliary word (help)  rice

"帮我打饭，Please help get me (some) rice."

Hou caty  meuu lax                            bheuucai.

I       buy   you   auxiliary word (help) vegetable

"我帮你买菜，I'll help you buy (some) vegetables."

Na rien  na kueng  poengs  meuu lax                             ceengcai.

He say he  would  water    you    auxiliary word (help)   flower

"他说他会帮你给花浇水，He said he would help you water the flowers."

Complement
There are three kinds of complements: sequential, directional, and quantitative complements. A complement goes after the verb or the adjective, in order to explain the sequence, degree, direction, or amount of the action. Usually, the verb, adjective, number, or phrase acts as a complement. Generally, a complement is placed after a verb, but if an object follows that verb, then the sequential complement and quantitative complement have to be placed after that object; the directional complement can either be placed after or before that object, e.g.,

A. Sequential complement
Dzax   ghoems taeix  hlaeux  bhe.

Snake by           hit      die      accent

"蛇被打死了，The snake was beaten to death by (someone)."

Hou bhaeis  lax   kuuem   he.

I       already  eat  full         accent

"我已经吃饱了，I have already eaten (rice) and am full."

Na lax tax   kuuem  he.

He eat  rice full        accent

"他吃饱饭了，He ate and is full."

If the sequential complement is a phrase, the prepositional word "dhaens" is needed to be placed before the phrase, e.g.,

Na gwaeng dhaens        tuuen   nomswoms.

He pull         preposition go out  sweat

"他拉到出汗，He pulled until he sweat."

Duis               ghoux  dhaens       ngaeix         noms  hauux.

Water buffalo run       preposition  edge/bank river    that

"水牛跑到那河边，The water buffalo ran to the bank of that river."

Veengs   neix baen  dhaens        asras       ruus qieng  cat.

shirt/top  this   new  preposition  whoever  also  want   wear

"这衣服新到谁都想穿，This shirt is so new that everyone wants to wear it."

B. Directional complement
The directional complement is constructed by a verb + a directional verb, e.g., a.  Directional complement without an object

Most directional complements can act as a complement after alone verb, e.g.,

Na qieus buuen  bhe.

He bring   come  accent

"他拿来了，He brought something here."

Duis               ghoux   hei lo!

Water buffalo run        go accent

"水牛跑去了，The water buffalo ran (away)."

Aeudza   buuen luueng    bhe

Old man come    go back accent

"老人回来了，The old man came back."

Uengxtoengs caep hei  beuu           bhe

Everyone       carry  go  come back accent

"大家挑回去了，Everyone carried (something) back (home)."

''Na ais                     caus. luei    ba.''

He is not willing to  come down down  accent

"他不愿意走下来吧，He is not willing to come down."

Na ghoux tuuen    hos?

He run       go out  accent  of question

"他跑出来了吗？Did he run out (from there)?"

b.  Directional complement with an object

These three directional verbs, "dhuas", "kaen", and "hluet", need an object to go after them, e.g.,

Tuas    zuens dhuas  zuu  dhanx     dhaeix.

Rabbit jump    over   one  classifier  stream

"兔子跳过一条小沟，The rabbit jumped over a stream."

Uengxtoengs caem                       kaen    hwous     max.

Everyone        carry on shoulders  go up  mountain that

"大家抬到那山上，Everyone shouldered (something) up that mountain."

Diu      bhaeis  ghoux  hluet     cuengs he.

Mouse already  run     go into  hole       accent

"老鼠已经跑进洞，The mouse already ran into the hole."

C. Quantitative complement
The quantitative complement, which is constructed by either (number + verbal classifier), or (number + time classifier), usually goes after a verb, sometimes goes after an adjective, e.g.,

a.  Verb + (number + verbal classifier)

Hou uengx meuu  hei  zuu gaeis.

I       and      you    go  one  classifier

"我和你去一趟，I and you (can) go (there)."

Kai        bhaeis    hyoen  fus    dzax       bhe.

Chicken already   crow    three classifier  accent

"鸡已经啼三遍了，The rooster has already crowed three times."

b.  Verb + (number + time classifier)

Fa  bhaeis  o        zuu  bhoux              he.

We already  learn one  year/classifier  accent

"我们已经学一年了，We (have) already studied for one year."

Na bhaeis  doengs  fus     hwan he.

He already  stay      three  day     accent

"他已经住三天了，He (has) already stayed (for) three days."

Na beuu      blongs  zaux  hlaus nyaen   bhe.

He go back  home   have  two     month accent

"他回家有两个月了，He has been home for two months now."

c.   Adjective + (number + classifier)

Blongs neix peek       dhuas  blongs hauux  zuugit.

House  this   high/tall than     house   that    a little bit

"这房子比那房子高一点，This house (is just) a little bit taller than that house."

Waeu neix hloei   fus     hom.

Bowl  this   more three  classifier

"这碗多三个，This bowl (has) three extra (ones)."

5. Attribute
The attribute is to modify or to define the subject or object, in order to indicate the characteristics, amount, or possession. Usually, the attribute, which can be an adjective, a noun, a pronoun, a number, a verb, or different kinds of phrases, is placed after the head word, except when a number acts as an attribute, the number must be placed before the head word, e.g.,

A. Noun (head word) + noun (attribute)
aek   duis

meat water buffalo

"牛肉，beef"

feekx hweek

skin   banana

"香蕉皮，banana peel"

coem coeis

fruit    litchi

"荔枝果，litchi (fruit)"

dzuuem kai

egg        chicken

"鸡蛋，chicken egg"

Na kueng rien            tun                     Hlai.

He know   say/speak language/word  Li

"他会说黎话，He knows(how to) speak the Li's language."

Neix man bheuu  cai.

This  is      leaf     tree

"这是树叶，This is a tree's leaf."

B. Noun (head word) + adjective (attribute)
tau loek

pot black

"黑锅，black pot"

zuu fans         veengs    kaeu

one classifier shirt/top  white

"一件白上衣，one white shirt"

noms neix  noms  ghan.

water this   water cold

"这水是冷水，This water (is) cold water."

C. Noun (head word) + pronoun (attribute)
Gha Hlai           zaux caqias  veengzauus  bhe.

We   Li people  have script    self               accent

"咱们黎族有自己的文字了，We, Li people, have our own script."

Hluuek        na         kweis          hei zok            Damxax.

Older sister his/her is going to  go   to/toward Sanya

"他姐姐要去三亚，His older sister is going to go to Sanya."

D. Number (attribute) + noun (head word)
Zuu zuen        aeu  dhuus  blongs max.

One classifier  man  in         house  that

"一个人在那边房子，A man (is) in that house."

Hlaus lang         duis               neix  ghweis dhat  dhat.

Two    classifier  water buffalo this  fat          very very

"这两头牛肥极了，These two water buffalos (are) very, very fat."

E. Noun (head word) + verb (attribute)
Dhuus max  wenysnaeis  fok      gaux.

In/at    there  no                 place  lie down

"在那里没有地方睡，At that place, (there is) no place to sleep."

Toep laty           ghoux  ruus  zeuu   loem.

Even wild boar  run       also  shoot  right

"连跑的野猪也射中，He shot even a running wild boar right on."

Neix gong lax   fa.

This  stuff   eat our

"这是我们吃的东西，This (is) our food ."

F. Noun (head word) + phrase (attribute)
veengs   dhuus blongs  hauux

shirt/top in         house  that

"在那房子的衣服，the shirt (that is) in that house"

hluuekueng naeus buuen  hauux

girl               just      come   that

"那位刚来的姑娘，that girl (who) just came"

zuu lang        duis                 lax   gans  kuuem

one classifier  water buffalo eat   grass  full

"一只吃饱草的水牛，a water buffalo (that) eats grass (until it's) full"

qi     meuu buuen  hauux

time you      come that

"你来的那个时候，that time (when) you came"

6. Adverbial
The adverbial modifies or defines verbs or adjectives, in order to indicate the why, how, when, and where of the verb, or the degree of the adjective. Most often it is an adverb, an adjective, or a verb that acts as an adverbial; sometimes, a noun, a demonstrative pronoun, interrogative pronoun, a number, and various phrases can also be adverbials. Adverbials can either be placed before or after the verb or adjective. e.g.,

A. Adverbs as Adverbials
Most adverbs are placed before the verb or adjective, e.g.,

Na oms  da   buuen  zo.

He still    not  come   accent

"他还没来呢，He has not come (yet)."

Hwanneix fas  vaeu fous  hos.

Today       sky  mosthot   accent

"今天天气很热啊，Today the weather (is) very hot."

Qi     lax  tax   yous  rien            tun!

Time eat rice  don't say/speak  word

"吃饭时别说话！It is eating time, don't talk!"

Zuu lang          aeu  neix  da   hlenymuuen.

One classifier  man this   not  beautiful

"这个人不漂亮！This person (is) not beautiful."

Only fewadverbs, like "dhat", "luueng", "baisias" and "dhatdhat", are placed after the verb or adjective, e.g.,

Na buuen  dhat.

He come   really

"他真的来了，He really came."

Na vuek  luueng.

He do      back

"他重新做，He (is) re-doing (it)."

Gong neix hleny  dhatdhat.

Stuff   this  good really

"这东西真好，This is really good stuff."

Maeis        neix dheeng  baisias.

Sugarcane this   sweet   very

"这甘蔗非常甜，This sugarcane (is) very sweet."

B. Adjectives as Adverbials
Most adjectives are placed before verb or adjective head words. Only a few adjectives, like "hleny" (好, good/so), and "reek" (坏, bad/not so), can be adverbials to modify adjective head words, e.g.,

reek          coem

bad/not so sharp

"不锋利，not so sharp"

Gas           neix  hleny       coem hos！

Long knife this   good/so  sharp accent!

"这把刀好快啊！This knife is (so) sharp!"

Dais  fei    as,        baisdza！

Slow walk  accent, old lady!

"慢走啊，老大娘，Slow(ly) walk, (lady/old woman)."

Meuu dzuuns buuen  bhe！

You    quick     come   accent

"你快来吧，(You) quick(ly) come."

If an adjective is doubled, it can be placed after the verb, e.g.,

Meuu buuen dzuunsdzuuns  bhe！

You    come   quick   quick    accent

"你快快来吧，(You) come double quick."

C. Verbs as Adverbials
When verbs act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial verbs are placed before that head word, e.g.,

Na        ngais rien.

He/she cry      say

"她哭着说，She said (it while) crying."

Meuu dzok               dzueis  meshes?

You   steal/secretly  look     what

"你偷看什么？What are you secretly looking at?"

Na oep  lax   zuuyunx.

He like  eat  coconut

"他爱吃椰子，He likes to eat coconuts."

D. Nouns as Adverbials
When nouns act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial nouns are placed before that head word, e.g.,

Neix man cai   vuek

This is       tree make

"这是木制的，This is made of wood."

Meuu ashaux     hei  hyos?

You    tomorrow  go  question accent

"你明天去吗？Are you going tomorrow?"

E. Pronouns as Adverbials
When pronouns act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial pronouns can either be placed before or after that head word, e.g.,

''Na dhongneix rien. = Na rien  dhongneix.''

He like this       say = He  say   like this

"他这样说，He said (it) like this."

Gong neix  dhongras  vuek = Gong  neix  vuek dhongras

work this   how          do    = work   this  do    how

"这活儿怎样做？How (is) this work done?"

Qiras dhaens = dhaens qiras

When arrive   = arrive    when

"何时到？When (will he) arrive?"

However, when pronouns act as adverbials to modify a head word that is an adjective, the adverbial pronouns are only placed after that head word, e.g.,

Gom    neix bheeng      dhonghauux.

Region this   wide/vast like that/so

"这地方那么宽，This region (is) so vast."

Zuu zuen         aeu  neix  hleny         dhonghauux.

One classififer  man this  good/kind  like that/so

"这个人那么好，This man (is) so good."

Zuu dhanx       dhoei  neix daeus ras?

One classififer  rope    this   long    how?

"这一条绳子有多长？How long (is) this rope?"

F. Prepositional phrases as Adverbial
When a prepositional phrase, using the prepositions "ia" (被, by) or "dheuu" (被, by), act as adverbials, the prepositional phrase only modifies a head word that is a verb, and must be placed before that head word, e.g.,

Ia  ba    gaenys

by dog   bite

"被狗咬，bit by a dog"

dheuu na  taeix

by       him hit

"被他打，hit by him"

When a prepositional phrase, using the prepositions "tuuen" (从, by), "dhuus" (在, in/at), "ku" (对, to), "uengx" (和, and),or "nyuek" (和, and) act as adverbials, the prepositional phrase only modifies the head word that is a verb, and must be placed either before or after that head word, e.g.,

tuuen max zuu  dhanx      guen kaen    hwous

From  that   one classifier  road   go up mountain

"从这一条路上山，by that road (one can) go up the mountain"

toek tuuen deuu  cai

drop from    on    tree

"从树上掉下来，drop from the tree"

dhuus blongs           dzoeng  meuu = dzoeng meuu  dhuus  blongs

at        house/home  wait      you    = wait        you    at         house/home

"在家等你，(I'll) wait for you at home."

ku na   rien = rien  ku  na

to  him  say = say  to  him

"对他说，say to him"

uengx meuu  hei= hei  uengx  meuu

With    you     go = go  with      you

"同你去，(I'll) go with you."

''meuu doengs  nyuek      na. = meuu nyuek      na   doengs.''

You    play        with/and  him = You   with/and  him  play

"你和他玩，You play with him."

Some prepositions, like "bhi" (比, than/compare), "dhuas" (过, than), "dhong" (同/像/如, same/be like), or "bhaen" (像, be like), have nouns as adverbials to modify the adjective head word, of which some are placed before that head word, others after, and still others either before or after, e.g.,

Before the adjective head word:

Meuu bhi                   dhes  peek.

You     than/compare  me    tall

"你比我高，You (are) taller than me."

After the adjective head word:

Meuu peek  dhuas na.

You     tall     than   him

"你高过他，You (are) taller than him."

Ba   long dhuas  mieux.

Dog big    than    cat

"狗大过猫，A dog (is) bigger than a cat."

Before or after the adjective head word:

hloek bhaen laengs

deep  like/as sea

"像海一样深，as deep as the sea."

enyx dhong  guty

small like/as needle

"像针一样小，as small as a needle."

''Kai         neix bhaen  eps    ghweis. = Kai        neix ghweis  bhaen  eps.''

Chicken this   like/as  duck fat         = Chicken this   fat        as        duck

"这只鸡像鸭一样肥，This chicken (is) as fat as (a) duck."

1. Simple sentence
The simple sentence includes subject-predicate sentence, no subject sentence, one word sentence, e.g.,

A. Subject-predicate sentences
Fas fun  lo.

sky rain  accent

"天要下雨了，It's going to rain."

Na hei bhe.

He go accent

"他去了，He went."

Enyxlauux raeu   he.

Child            laugh  accent

"小孩笑了，(The) child(ren) laughed."

The simple sentences above include two elements: subjects and predicates, however, other elements like objects, complements, or adverbials can be included, e.g.,

(subject + predicate + object)

Hou lax tax.

I       eat  rice

"我吃饭，I eat rice."

(subject + predicate + complement)

Na qieus buuen  bhe.

He bring   come  accent

"他拿来了，He brought (it with him)."

(subject + adverbial + predicate + complement)

Enyxlauux bhaeis  fei     hluet  blongs.

Child         already  walk  into   house

"小孩走进屋子，(The) child(ren) walked into the house."

B. No subject sentences
This simple sentences look like inverted sentences, e.g.,

Tuut    dhoei   bhe.

Break  rope   accent

"断绳了，The rope (is) broken."

Hloei  aeu      dhat.

Many people  really/very

"人真多，(There are) so many people."

Hlaeux hlai bhe.

Die       fish accent

"鱼死了，The fish died."

C. One word sentence
Asras？

Who？

"谁？Who?"

Ahyo!

Oh my!

"哎哟！Oh my!"

A: "Meuu kweis            da     kweis？"      B: "Kweis."

You    be willing to  NEG be willing to        be willing to

A: 'Are you willing (or) not willing?' B: '(Yes, I am) willing.'

A: 你愿意不愿意？B:愿意

2. Compound sentences
There are two kinds of compound sentences; one is a coordinate compound sentence, the other is a subordinate compound sentence, e.g.,

A. Coordinate compound sentences
The linked clauses in a coordinate compound sentence are equivalent. There are three kinds of relationships between linked clauses: parallel, progressive, and optional.

a.  The parallel relationship

Usually, there is no need of conjunctions between clauses.

Hou kweis hei  kuishuix,             na kweis  hei  ang.

I       will      go  have a meeting  he  will     go   field

"我要去开会，他要去山栏地，I'm going to a meeting, he's going to the field."

Coem hweek  hou  ngan  lax dhuas,

Fruit    banana  I      also   eat  auxiliary past tense

zuuyunx hou ngan  lax  dhuas.

coconut  I       also  eat  auxiliary past tense

"香蕉我吃过，椰子我也吃过，I've eaten bananas, and I have also eaten coconuts."

Na        hoen              vuek  veengs vuek  riens,

He/she know how to do     shirt      do     skirt

hoen             vuek  ang         vuek  dax.

know how to do     hilly field  do    plain field

"她能做衣服做裙子，能耕田种地，She can make shirts and skirts, (she also) can work (in) hilly (and) plain fields."

b.  The progressive relationship

The conjunction words that express a progressive relationship between clauses are "loms" (又, still),"oms" (还, 却, yet),"ruus" (都, all), "koms" (连, even/also), and their similar phrases such as "dacaux…koms/uuloms…"(不但...而且...，not only... but also...), e.g.,

Fas bhaeis  cop,  na  loms  da  beuu.

Sky already  late  he   still    not come back

"天已经晚了，他还不回来，It was late, and he still (had) not come back."

Fas oms  da  dhenys,  na  bhaeis  hei  ang   he.

Sky  yet    not  bright,   he  already  go field  accent

"天尚未亮，他已经去田里了，It was not yet the break of dawn, and he had already gone to the field."

Meuuda man Moei,  fa    man Hlai, gha  ruus  man uxaeu   Dongxgok.

You         are    Han,  we  are    Li,    we   all      are    people China

"你们是汉族，我们是黎族，咱们都是中国人，You are Han, we are Li, we are all Chinese."

Na kueng             rien     tun                     Hlai,

He know how to  speak language/word  Li

kueng            rien     koms        tun                     Moei.

know how to speak  also/even language/word  Han

"他会说黎话，也会说汉话，He knows how to speak the Li language, also knows how to speak the Han language."

hou dacaux  dzueis  bhaeis,  uuloms   taeis  bhaeis.

I      not only  read    finished,  but also  write finished

"我不仅看完了，而且写完了，Not only did I finish reading, but I also finished writing."

c.   The optional relationship

The conjunction words that express an optional relationship between clauses are "cuus" (或, or), "cas"  (或, or), "casnus"  (或, or), "cuusnaus"  (或, or), and "dagoms" (或, or), e.g.,

Pashlaus    meuu buuen, cas pasghueng          meuu  buuen.

Old brother your    come, or    younger brother  your   come

"你哥哥来，还是你弟弟来，(Either) your older brother (will) come, or your younger brother (will) come."

Lax man     cuusnaus  lax  tax？

Eat  potato   or             eat  rice

"吃白薯还是米饭？Do you eat potatoes or rice?"

Meuu rien      ku  na,   dagoms  rien      ku  hou.

You    say/tell  to him,  or            say/tell  to  me

"你对他说，或者告诉我，You tell him, or tell me."

B. Subordinate compound sentences
The linked clauses in a coordinate compound sentence are not equivalent. There are three kinds of relationships between linked clauses: transitional, conditional, and causal.

a.  The transitional relationship

Usually, the first clause is the subordinate clause, and the latter one is the major clause. The conjunction words that express a transitional relationship are "tom" (但是, but), "oms" (却, but), and "dagoms"  (不然, otherwise), "tus" (但是, but), e.g.,

Uupans    hou hei  zok  na,   tom  na hei  qix.

Yesterday I       go  to    him, but    he go   street

"昨天我到他家去，但是他已经上街去了，Yesterday I went to (find) him (at his house), but he had already hit the streets."

Na  kweis vuek tun,      oms dhas zuugheidhang.

She want   sing a song, but    fear    shame

"她想唱歌，又怕害羞，She wants to sing, but fears embarrassment."

Kweis o      goms  o        dhat, dagoms    beuu       blongs.

Want  learn  then   learn  well,   otherwise go back  home

"要学就真正地学，不然就回家去，(If you) want to learn, then learn (it) well, otherwise, go back home."

b.  The conditional relationship

Usually, the first clause is the subordinate clause indicating the condition, and the latter one is the major clause expressing the consequence. The conjunction words that express a conditional relationship are "laeis" (如果, if), "dalunx" (无论, no matter what), e.g.,

Dalunx              na  rien dhongras, hou  ngan hei.

no matter what he  say how,          I       also   go

"不管他怎样说，我都去，No matter what he says, I'll also go."

Laeis na  da  buuen, dhes  fan   hei gongx  na.

If        he  not come,  I        then go  find      him

"如果他不来，我就去找他，If he doesn't come, then I'll go find him."

Laeis zaux               tax,   hou  goms  lax.

If        have/there is  rice, I       then    eat

"如果有饭，我就吃，If there is rice, then I (will) eat."

Laeis na   euu,   meuu  goms  waeix ku  hou  bas.

If        he  agree, you     then    tell      to  me   accent

"如果他答应，你就告诉我吧，If he agrees, then (you) tell me."

Sometimes, the conditional sentence does not need a conjunction word, e.g.,

Tuuen kaux      vuek  gong,  nge   zaux  gan       zaux jien.

Out     strength  do    work,  must  have money  have  money

"努力工作，一定会有金钱，(If you) use strength to work, (you) will have money."

c.   The causal relationship

Usually, the first clause is the major clause indicating the result, and the latter one is the subordinate clause expressing the cause. The conjunction words that express a causal relationship are "hans" (因为, because), "dagoms" (不然, otherwise), e.g.,

Fas fun yous  hei,dagoms    ia            cok.

Sky rain don't  go  otherwise  gain/get  sickness

"天下雨了，别去，不然要得病，It's raining, don't go, otherwise (you'll) get sick."

Dhes da hei,  hans        dhes cok  bhe.

I        not  go  because  I        sick accent

"我不去，因为我病了，I'm not going because I'm sick."

Hou beuu          bat   dhoei, hans       tuut   bhaeis.

I      come back  take rope, because  break  totally

"我回来拿绳子，因为全断了，I came back to take a rope, because (my rope is) totally broken."

Sometimes, the word "hans" also can be used in a conditional clause, e.g.,

Jieng,    hans                   hloei   ges            fa    ngan duuengx.

Success, no matter what  much  price/cost  we also    give

"能成功的话，那么多少钱我们都给，(Achieve) success, no matter how much it costs."

When the loan words "ienxuis…dosdzis"are used to present the cause-result relationship, the causal clause is placed before the result clause, e.g.,

Ienxuis   boux neix  fas  raenx, dosdzis  daenslieng aiszangs  peek.

Because year   this sky  dry,      so          produce      not so      high

"因为今年天旱，所以产量不太高，Because this year it (is) dry, (so) the produce (is) not so much."

C. Compressed compound sentences
In view of idea expressed, the compressed sentence is a compound sentence; in view of construction, it is a simple sentence.

Dhes ghais meuu  vuek  meshes goms  vuek  meshes.

I         tell     you     do     what       then   do     what

"我叫你做什么就做什么，Whatever I tell you to do, do (it)."

Hou kweis rien oms dhas.

I       want   say  but   fear

"我想说又害怕，I want to speak but (I) fear (to say it)."

Na faets    ngop  faets    hlenyvis.

He more... think more... happy

"他越想越高兴，The more he thinks the more happy he is."

Bou neix luuengx  bhoux  luuengx ghweis.

Pig  this   more...  feed     more... fat

"这只猪越喂越肥，The more this pig is fed the fatter it is."

Na lax       vuek  lax       dzuuns.

He more... do    more... fast

"他越做越快，The more he works the faster he gets/becomes."

Aeu ceeng  buuen  ceeng    hloei.

He   more... come   more... many

"人越来越多，The people coming (are) more and more."

Hlai Sentence Types and their basic rules
According to the function and mood, Hlai sentences can be classified as declarative sentences, interrogative sentences, imperative sentences, and exclamatory sentences.

A. Affirmative sentence
Hou kweis  hei  ang.

I       will       go hilly field

"我要去山栏地，I will go to the hilly field."

Neix man  veengs   na.

This  is      shirt/top her/his

"这是他/她的衣服，This is her/his shirt/top."

Sometimes, the linking verb is omitted, e.g.,

Neix veengs     na.

This  shirt/top   her/his

"这是他/她的衣服，This (is) her/his shirt/top."

B. Negative sentence
Neix ghwaix  veengs  na.

This  is not    shirt/top her/his

"这不是他/她的衣服，This is not her/his shirt."

Na da  buuen  zo.

He not  come  accent

"他还没来呢，He has not come yet."

A. Using interrogative pronouns
There are several interrogative pronouns that are used: "uuras/asras" (谁, who?), "meshes" (什么, what?), "dhongras" (怎样, how?), "ras" (哪，如何, where? which? how?), "qiras" (何时, when?), and "hloeiras" (多少, How much/many?), e.g.,

Neix veengs    asras?

This  shirt/top  who?

"这是谁的衣服，Whose shirt is this?"

Uuras uengx hou  hei?

Who   with     me  go?

"谁跟我去？Who(will) go with me?"

Neix man  meshes?

This  is      what?

"这是什么？What is this?"

Vuek dhongras naus  dhiu?

Do    how           just    right?

"怎么样做才好？How should it be done, so that it will be done right?"

Meuu hei zok            ras?

You    go   to/toward where?

"你去哪儿？Where are you heading?"

Na qiras buuen?

He when come?

"他何时来？When (will) he come?"

zaux  hloeiras      zuen        uucok?

Have how many  classifier sick

"有几个病号？How many (people) are sick?"

B. Using interrogative accent words
These questions require an answer: "Yes or no".

Ghwaix na   bas?

Is not    him  accent

"不是他吧？It is not him, right?"

Neix guu          meuu  hos?

This  belong to  you    accent

"这是你的吗？Does this belong to you?"

Meuu bhaeis  lax  tax   hixhos?

You    already  eat rice  accent

"你已经吃过饭了吗？Did you already eat (rice)?"

(There are several more words used in the interrogative mood, so please see the section on accented words.)

C. Using negation words ("da")

Meuu kweis  hei  da?

You    will     go   NEG?

"你要去吗？Won't you go?"

Meuu kweis            da?

You    be willing to  NEG?

"你愿意吗？Aren't you willing?"

Meuu kweis  laeis  hisdhop  da?

You    want   see   movie    NEG?

"你要看电影吗？Don't you want to see a movie?"

Gong neix hleny  da?

Stuff   this  good  NEG?

"这东西好吗？Isn't this stuff good?"

The conjunction word "cuus/cas" can be added before the negative words "da" to express a question, e.g.,

Meuu qieng dheuu  cuus  da?

You    want    take    or      not?

"你想拿吗？Do you want to take (it) or not?"

Meuu bhaeis  lax  cuus  da?

You    already  eat  or     not?

"你已经吃了吗？Have you already eaten or not?"

Veengs  neix hleny  cas  da?

shirt/top this   good  or    not?

"这件衣服好吗？Is this shirt/top good or not?"

D. Using conjunction words ("cuus/cas")
The conjunction word "cuus/cas" can be added between two options to express a question, e.g.,

Meuu dheuu cuus  ais?

You    want     or      don't want?

"你要不要？Do you want (it) or not?"

Fa  caem                   cuus  bhiek?

We carry with hands  or      carry on shoulders?

"我们抬还是扛？Should we carry (it) with (our) hands or on (our) shoulders?"

Dhat                     cas  tuas?

Genuine/real/true or    false/fake?

"真的还是假的？Are you telling the truth, or did you make it up?"

Another related conjunction word "cuusnaus/casnus" can be added between two options to express a question, e.g.,

Na hei  cuusnaus hou  hei？

He go   or              I       go?

"他去还是我去？Will he go or should I go?"

3. Imperative sentence
When a speaker demonstrates a request or a command, usually he will express it with an accent. When the subject is omitted, it can become a one word sentence, e.g.,

Buuen!

Come

"来！Come！"

Uuhaux    laus  zuucoeis     bas.

tomorrow pick litchi (fruit)  accent

"明天摘荔枝吧！Tomorrow let's (finish) pick(ing) litchi (=a kind of fruit)!"

Uengxtoengs dzuuns buuen  res!

Everyone       quickly  come   accent

"大家快来吧！Everyone, come quickly!"

(There are several more words used in the imperative mood, so please see the section on accented words.)

When a speaker expresses a prohibition, usually the adverbial word "yous" (别, don't) is used.

Yous  vuek!

Don't do

"别做！Quit doing that!"

4. Exclamatory sentence
There are several words used in the exclamatory mood, like "ho", "a", "aei", "aidzo", "aiho", "euu", and "o". These words strongly express the speaker's feelings.

A. An accented word in one word sentence
''Euu! Hauux bhe!''

Yes! That is (it)!

"嗯！是！Yes! That's it!"

''Aei! Dhongras vuek naus        hleny?''

Oh my! How          do    just/then  good

"哎哟！怎么做才好？Oh my! What's a good way to do this?"

B. An accented word follows one word or one phrase
Cok  ho!

Pain accent

"疼啊！Ouch!"

Hleny     hloei  ho!

good/so many  accent

"好多啊！So many!"

C. An accented word at the end of a sentence
''Aidzo! Keuuhwoek ho!''

Oh my! Poor           accent

"哎哟！可惜啊！Oh (my)! Poor (guy)!"

Tau bhaeis  poens  a!

Pot already  break  accent

"锅已经破了！The pot broke!"

Bheuucai  neix hleny  lax  ho!

Vegetable this   good eat  accent

"这菜好吃啊！This vegetable (=dish) (is) good to eat (=delicious)!"

Noms neix ghan  a!

Water this   cold  accent

"这水凉啊！This water is cold!"

(There are several more words used in the exclamatory mood, so please see the section on accented words.)

Influence of Chinese grammar
Due to the frequent contacts made between the Li (黎族) and the Han (汉族) over a relatively lengthy stretch of time, the Hlai language has been influenced by the Chinese language and its grammar. As previously mentioned, the Hlai counting system for dates, ordinal numbers, and measurements have been influenced by Chinese. In this chapter, the Chinese influence in Hlai's word order of attribute phrases, verb-object-complement phrases, and interrogative sentences is discussed.

Attribute phrases
Nouns act as head words, and the attribute word is a number. Natively, the number should be placed before the head word. But, due to the Chinese influence, the number can be placed after the head word, e.g.,

When nouns act as head words, and the attribute words are demonstrative pronouns and numbers, the number is placed before the head word and the demonstrative pronoun after the head word. But, due to Chinese influence, the word order has become more like the word order in Chinese, e.g.,

When two nouns are placed together as an attribute phrase, the front noun is the head word, and the back one the attribute word. However, due to Chinese influence, the word order can be changed, but only when applied to loan word attribute phrases, e.g.,

Another kind of attribute phrase is where the noun is the head word and the adjective is the attribute word. When the words in the phrase are all loan words, the word order follows the Chinese one, e.g.,

However, when the words in the phrase are not all loanwords, the adjective is placed after the noun, e.g.,

Dongxgok baen

China new

"new China"

neix man gun baen.

DEM.this is skirt new

"This is a new skirt."

giuscex long

savior big

"great savior"

Verb-object-complement phrases
When verbs act as head words, the word order is verb-object-complement. But, due to Chinese influence, the word order, verb-complement-object has also been adopted, e.g.,

Interrogative sentences
The native ways to denote a question in the Hlai language are using interrogative pronouns, interrogative accents, or placing the negation word da at the end of a sentence. However, due to Chinese influence, a new word order has appeared, which is, verb (head word) + negation + verb, e.g.,

The possessive auxiliary word gaeis
The native possessive auxiliary word in Hlai is guu. In the Chinese language, the possessive auxiliary word is gaeis, and both its usage and function have been imputed into the Hlai language, e.g.,