Klingon grammar

The grammar of the Klingon language was created by Marc Okrand for the Star Trek franchise. He first described it in his book The Klingon Dictionary. It is a nominative–accusative, primarily suffixing agglutinative language, and has an object–verb–subject word order. The Klingon language has a number of unusual grammatical features, as it was designed to sound and seem alien, but it has an extremely regular morphology.

Word order
Klingon follows an object–verb–subject word order. Adverbs usually go at the beginning of the sentence and prepositional phrases go before the object.

Doʼ Duj - Daq ghoqwIʼ Sam laʼ

fortunately ship + LOC spy find commander

Fortunately, the commander found the spy aboard the ship

Sentences can be treated as objects, and the word  is placed after the sentence. is treated as the object of the next sentence. The adverbs, indirect objects and locatives of the latter sentence go after the subject, but before the

bI - pIv ʼeʼ vI - tuʼ

you- + {be healthy} that I-it + observe

I see that you're healthy (lit. I observe that you are healthy)

Nouns
Klingon has three noun classes. The first one is living beings with an innate capacity to use language. The second one is body parts (not the body itself) and the third is all other nouns. Klingon has no articles, so the word  table can mean a table or the table. The difference between the two is inferred from context.

Suffixes
There are five types of noun suffixes. A word cannot have two suffixes of the same type. The suffixes are ordered based on type number; a type 2 suffix goes before a type 3 suffix, but after a type 1 suffix. In the following example, all five suffix types are used in the correct order.

veng - Hom - mey - qoq - chaj - Daq

city + DIM + PL + DUB + their + LOC

in their so-called villages

Type 1 (size, affection)
This type has three suffixes:

ghom → ghomʼaʼ
 * The augmentative suffix ,

group {} crowd yuQ → yuQHom
 * The diminutive suffix ,

planet {} planetoid vav → vavoy
 * and the endearment suffix  .

father {} daddy
 * If the noun to which the endearment suffix is added ends with a vowel, a glottal stop is inserted between them:

ghu → ghuʼoy

baby {} {dear baby}

Type 2 (plurals)
This type of suffix forms plurals. There are three suffixes, one for each noun class.

qetwIʼ → qetwIʼpuʼ
 * The suffix  is  for beings capable of using language.

runner {} runners ghop → ghopDuʼ
 * The suffix  is for body parts,

hand {} hands quS → quSmey
 * The suffix  is used for all other nouns.

chair {} chairs
 * When  is used for nouns that would normally take   or , it carries the connotation of being all over the place.

ghot → ghotmey

person {} {people all over the place} A noun does not require a plural suffix if a pronoun, pronominal prefix, or context serves to indicate that it is plural, or if it is being used in conjunction with a number.


 * or
 * They are emissaries.


 * or
 * We broke the tables.

Type 3 (accuracy)
This type of suffix indicates the speaker's opinion of the applicability of the noun. There are three suffixes:

QaH → QaHqoq
 * The suffix  indicates that the speaker thinks what they are referencing is not actually represented by the noun.

{the help} {} {the so-called help} choH → choHHey
 * The dubitative suffix  indicates the speaker is not entirely sure if the object they are referencing is represented by the noun.

change {} {apparent change} jup → jupnaʼ
 * The suffix  indicates that the speaker is entirely sure that the object is represented accurately by the noun.

friend {} {true friend}

Type 4 (possession, determiners)
This type of suffix indicates possession or specifies which object is referred to. It contains twelve suffixes.

There are ten possession suffixes, indicating who is the possessor of the object, which may be a person. For first- and second-person possessors, there are different forms depending on whether the "object" is a being capable of using language.

There are also two determiner suffixes:
 * this indicates an object that is nearby or that is being discussed
 * that indicates an object that is not nearby or that had previously been discussed

Examples: nav → navwIj
 * Non-language-user possessives:

paper {} {my paper} qeSwIʼpuʼ → qeSwIʼpuʼlIʼ
 * Language-user possessives:

advisors {} {your advisors} Soj → Sojvam
 * Determiners:

food {} {this food}

Type 5 (syntactic role)
This type of suffix serves a syntactic role in the sentence. It contains five suffixes.

juHmaj → juHmajDaq
 * The locative suffix  indicates the action of the sentence is taking place in, at or on the noun. With certain verbs, it indicates motion towards the noun.

{our home} {} {in our home} qoj → qojvoʼ
 * The ablative suffix  indicates that the action is taking place away from the noun. Again, with certain verbs, it indicates motion away from the noun.

cliff {} {away from the cliff} ghuʼ → ghuʼmoʼ
 * The causal suffix  indicates that the action is occurring because of the noun.

situation {} {because of the situation} jeʼwIʼ → jeʼwIʼvaD
 * The dative/benefactive suffix  indicates the indirect object, and/or the noun for which the action has been done.

buyer {} {to/for the buyer}
 * The topicalizing suffix  indicates the topic of the sentence or emphasises the noun in the phrase, and also marks the head noun of a relative clause.

Verbs
Klingon verbs mark for aspect but not for tense, which is indicated where necessary by context and by time adverbs. Prefixes mark subject and object. There are ten types of suffix, and as with nouns, a verb can have no more than one suffix of any type. (The tenth type, called rovers, are an exception.) Again as with nouns, the types of suffix must appear in a strict order, indicated by their type number: a type 2 suffix goes before a type 3 suffix, but after a type 1 suffix. A rover suffix can go between any of them.

Unlike English, there is no infinitive. The presentation of the verb stem as an infinitive in this article's example sentences is just to show the individual morphemes.

Prefixes
Klingon verb prefixes mark both the subject and the object.  * Expressed with the type-5 verb suffix

Prefixes must be present even if the nouns or pronouns they reference are declared explicitly. In certain cases with a third person object, a first or second person indirect object can be omitted by using the first and second person object prefixes instead. This is known as the prefix trick.

Examples: Qong → jIQong
 * No object:

sleep {} {I sleep} nob → DunuQ
 * Subject and object:

give {} {It annoys you} laD → yIlaD
 * Imperative:

read {} {Read it}

Type 1 (reflexive/reciprocal)
This type of suffix forms reflexive verbs. There are two suffixes.

jIlegh → jIleghʼegh
 * The reflexive suffix  indicates that the individual subject(s) does/do the action to her/him/itself/themselves.

{I see} {} {I see myself} maʼang → maʼangʼegh

{We reveal} {} {We reveal ourselves (individually)} Sulegh → Suleghchuq
 * The reciprocal suffix  indicates that the individual subjects do the action to each other. Intransitive verbs cannot take this suffix.

{You(pl) see} {} {You(pl) see each other}

Type 2 (volition/necessity)
This type of suffix deals with the subject's volition. There are five suffixes.

chojaʼ → chojaʼnIS
 * The suffix  indicates that the subject is required to or has the necessity to complete the action.

{You tell me} {} {You need to tell me} lungev → lungevqang
 * The suffix  indicates that the subject is willing to perform the action.

{They sell it} {} {They are willing to sell it} {ghuʼ poj} → {ghuʼ pojrup}
 * The suffix  indicates the subject is prepared to complete the action.

{He/She analyzes the situation} {} {He/She is ready to analyze the situation} {ghoghlIj qon} → {ghoghlIj qonbeH}
 * The suffix  indicates that the subject has been set up to complete the action.   is used with devices, whereas   is used with beings.

{It records your voice} {} {It is ready to record your voice} bImej → bImejvIp
 * The suffix  indicates that the subject is afraid to do the action.

{You leave} {} {You are afraid to leave}

Type 3 (inceptive/inchoative)
This type of suffix describes the action of the verb. There are two suffixes.

yIt → yItchoH
 * The suffix  indicates a change of state to that indicated by the verb:

{He/she/it walks} {} {He/she/it starts walking} Doq → DoqchoH

{It is red} {} {It becomes red} yIQong → yIQongqaʼ
 * The suffix  indicates the action had been stopped, but is now resuming, or that the action is being performed again.

Sleep! {} {Go back to sleep!}

Type 4 (causative)
There is only one suffix in this category, the causative suffix. This suffix indicates that the subject is causing something to happen. If the verb to which it is added is transitive, the object becomes the indirect object. Many Klingon words are derived this way. For example, the verb clean is derived from the verb be clean.

Intransitive verb: poS lojmIt

{be open} door

The door is open.


 * Causative form:

lojmIt poS - moH qup

door {be open} + CAUS elder

The elder opened the door. (lit. The elder caused the door to be open.)

Transitive verb: paq Da - nej

book you-it + {look for}

You look/are looking for the book. (lit. You look for the book.)
 * Causative form:

paq qa - nej - moH

book I-you + {look for} + CAUS

I made you look for the book. (lit. I caused you to look for the book.)

Type 5 (undefined subject; capability)
There are two unrelated suffixes in this group. The suffix  indicates an undefined subject. The verb prefixes that are normally used for first or second person subject with third person singular object are used to indicate first or second person object. The suffix indicates that the subject is capable of performing the action of the verb.

Examples: much bej - luʼ
 * without prefix:

presentation watch + {INDF SBJ}

the presentation is watched, someone watches the presentation
 * He/she watches the presentation
 * He/she watches the presentation

vI - tlhaʼ - luʼ
 * with prefix:

I-it + chase + {INDF SBJ}

I am chased, someone chases me
 * I chase it
 * I chase it

vI - bom - laH

I-it + sing + {able to}

I can sing it

Type 6 (perfection; uncertainty)
This type indicates the speaker's opinion of the action of the verb. There are four suffixes.

pIQoy → pIQoychuʼ
 * The suffix  indicates that the speaker considers the action is done in the best possible manner.

{we hear you} {} {we hear you clearly} SuQeH → SuQeHbej
 * The suffix  indicates that the speaker is completely sure the action is occurring.

{you (plural) are angry} {} {you are definitely angry} luyaj → luyajlawʼ
 * The dubitative suffix  indicates that the speaker thinks the action is occurring, but is not sure.

{they understand it} {} {they seem to understand it} lupar → luparbaʼ
 * The suffix  indicates that the speaker thinks that it is obvious that the action is occurring.

{they dislike it} {} {they obviously dislike it}

Type 7 (aspect)
This type indicates the verb's aspect. There are four Type 7 suffixes.

Note that aspect is different from tense and independent of it. A "completed" event (perfective aspect,  or  ) can just as easily be set before, during, or after the time of description (past, present, or future tense), or unspecified for tense. For simplicity, this section says "is completed", not "was, is, or will be completed." (Do not confuse perfective aspect with "perfectly done".)

qaS → qaSpuʼ
 * The perfective suffix  indicates that, in the time context of the sentence, the action is completed.

{It occurs} {} {It has occurred} vIghor → vIghorpuʼ

{I break it} {} {I have broken it} {Qu' QIj} → {Qu' QIjtaʼ}
 * The suffix  also indicates that the action is completed, and further specifies that it was done on purpose.

{She explains the mission} {} {She has explained the mission} vIghor → vIghortaʼ

{I break it} {} {I have broken it (on purpose)} jItlhuH → jItlhuHtaH
 * The suffix  indicates that the verb is occurring continuously.

{I breathe} {} {I keep breathing} {megh vIvut} → {megh vIvutlIʼ}
 * The suffix  indicates that the verb is occurring continuously, but that it has a definite ending point.

{I prepare lunch} {} {I am preparing lunch}

The perfective aspect can also be indicated by the use of the verb form  after the main verb. This carries the connotation of irreversibility.
 * It has been broken (and it cannot be mended)

Type 8 (honorific)
There is only one suffix in this group, the honorific suffix. It is used when addressing any type of superior, be it social, political, or military, and only when being very polite or having high regard for that person. It is never required.

qaqIH → qaqIHneS

{I meet you} {} {I am honoured to meet you}

Type 9 (syntactic)
Eleven suffixes specify syntactic roles in the sentence.

Nominalizers
Two suffixes form specific types of noun from a verb.

ʼIj → ʼIjwIʼ
 * The suffix  is used to form words for persons and things that do something, much as English nouns of the form X-er can mean either "person who does X" (listener, baker) or "thing that does X" (screwdriver, sprinkler).

listen {} listener woch → wochwIʼ

{be tall} {} {tall person or tall thing} QallaH → QallaHghach
 * The suffix  is used as a nominalizer for verbs ending in suffixes, which otherwise are unable to be nominalized. This suffix is usually used with other suffixes and is rarely found alone with the verb stem.

{be able to swim} {} {the ability to swim} pIvchoH → pIvchoHghach

{become healthy} {} {becoming healthy}

Modals
These two suffixes inflect the verb in specific grammatical moods. DIboQnIS → DIboQnISʼaʼ
 * The interrogative suffix  is used to form yes–no questions.

{We need to assist them} {} {Do we need to assist them?} bIQap → bIQapjaj
 * The optative suffix  is used to indicate a wish or desire of the speaker.

{You succeed} {} {May you succeed}

Subordinators
The following seven suffixes are used to form subordinate clauses. A subordinate clause may go after or before the clause it modifies.

Time
 * The suffix  indicates that the event described in the main clause occurs chronologically before the event of this clause.
 * Before I depart, assist me
 * ( I depart,   assist me)


 * The suffix  indicates that the main clause is occurring at the same time as this clause. It is always used in conjunction with the type-7 suffix continuous suffix.
 * ''He accomplishes nothing while he procrastinates
 * ( procrastinate,   accomplish,   nothing)


 * The suffix  indicates that the event of the main clause occurs immediately after the event of this clause is completed.
 * As soon as you approach me, I leave
 * ( I leave,   you approach me)

Cause and effect
 * The suffix  is used to form conditionals.
 * If you can find it, you can take it
 * ( you can find it,   you can acquire (take) it)


 * The suffix  indicates the main clause is occurring because of this clause.
 * Because you are sincere, I trust you
 * ( you are sincere,   I trust you)

(Relative and purpose clauses)
 * The suffix  is used in relative clauses. Their usage is covered in the relative clauses section.
 * The suffix  is used in purpose clauses. Their usage is covered in the purpose clauses section.

Rovers
This type of suffix is known as a  in Klingon, which is translated as rover (  wander +  ). There are four rovers. These suffixes have no defined position, and can go after the verb stem or after any suffix – even another rover – except after a type-9 suffix or where the result would be meaningless. They modify whatever directly precedes them.

wInaD → wInaDbeʼ
 * The rover suffix   negates what precedes it but in the imperative mood -Qoʼ is used.

{We praise it} {} {We do not praise it} boʼollaH → boʼollaHbeʼ

{You are able to verify it} {} {You are not able to verify it} yIQIp → yIQIpQoʼ
 * The rover suffix  negates what precedes it in the imperative mood. In the indicative mood it indicates refusal by the subject. It can only be used between verb suffixes of Type 8 and Type 9.

{Be stupid} {} {don't be stupid} vIlon → vIlonQoʼ

{I abandon it} {} {I refuse to abandon it} narghqang → narghqangquʼ
 * The rover suffix   emphasises what precedes it.

{He is willing to escape} {} {He is really willing to escape} yIchuʼ → yIchuʼHaʼ
 * The rover suffix  reverses what precedes it; that is, it indicates that the opposite of what precedes it is being done, or that the action is being undone. If used on a verb that cannot be undone and has no meaningful opposite, it means to perform the action wrongly, not in the proper way, somewhat like the English prefix mis- in misspeak, mistype, misspell, etc. Unlike the other rovers, it can be placed only just after the stem; its classification in the rover category is attributed to the insistence of fictional Klingon grammarians.

{Activate it} {} {De-activate it} boloʼ → boloʼHaʼ

{you (plural) use it} {} {you (pl.) misuse it} bIQuch → bIQuchHaʼ

{You are happy} {} {You are unhappy}

The position of the rover suffixes affects the meaning of the word. Contrast
 * They are able to eat it
 * They are not able to eat it
 * They are able to not eat it
 * (In context, possibly equivalent to They can refuse to eat it)
 * They are not able to not eat it
 * (In context, possibly equivalent to They cannot refuse to eat it)

Pronouns and copula
Klingon has no verb that corresponds to the verb to be; the concept is expressed using a different grammatical construction. Pronouns can be used as verbs that act as the pronoun plus the verb to be. The pronoun can take verb suffixes, which then modify the pronoun like any other verb. A third-person subject that is not a pronoun must go after the pronoun-verb and carry the type-5 noun suffix

Examples:
 * You are composers
 * A studier is a learner

Adjectives
Klingon does not have adjectives as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many intransitive verbs can be used as adjectives, in which case they follow the noun they modify. Contrast ( coat, and   be wet)
 * the wet coat
 * the wet coat

with
 * The coat is wet.
 * The coat is wet.

In this construction, the only verbal suffixes allowed are rover suffixes such as  and. Type-5 noun suffixes that would normally be attached to the noun are instead attached to the adjectival verb:
 * in the room
 * in the room


 * in the big room ( big)
 * in the big room ( big)

Adverbs
Adverbs are usually placed at the beginning of the sentence, but time adverbs go before other adverbs.

wa'leS ghaytan nu - jatlh

tomorrow likely they-us + speak

They will probably speak to us tomorrow.

Adverbs can take the rover suffix  to denote the opposite adverbial.


 * fortunately
 * fortunately


 * unfortunately
 * unfortunately

Conjunctions
Klingon has seven conjunctions, and they are different for nouns and for sentences. The noun conjunctions are  for a logical conjunction,   for a logical disjunction and   for an exclusive disjunction. Noun conjunctions go after the nouns they connect. Sentence conjunctions are  for a logical conjunction,   for a logical disjunction and   for an exclusive disjunction. (or ) but is used to contrast sentences.

Relative clauses
In a relative clause, the verb has the type-9 verb suffix  added to it. The order of the words in relative clauses remains the same as in regular clauses, but the head noun may optionally get the type-5 suffix  added.

chuS Saj ngev - bogh ghot - -ʼeʼ

{to be noisy} pet sell + REL person + FOC

The person who sells the pet is noisy

chuS Saj + -ʼeʼ ngev - bogh ghot

{be noisy} pet + FOC sell {} REL person

The pet which the person sells is noisy

Since there is already a type-5 noun suffix marking the head noun, nothing other than the subject or the object can be marked as head noun. Two sentences are formed instead to form the same idea. Relative clauses can have nouns with type 5 suffixes as modifiers, but it can be ambiguous as they can be misinterpreted as being part of the main sentence.

Purpose clauses
A purpose clause expresses the reason or goal of the action of the main clause. If it is modifying a noun it states the purpose of the noun. A purpose clause always goes before the clause or noun it modifies. This is the cause of some grammatical ambiguity in Klingon, as a  modifying a noun at the beginning of a sentence can be misinterpreted as modifying the entire sentence. This can be resolved in writing with punctuation.

ju - mer - meH, bI - Soʼ - ʼegh
 * with sentence:

you-us + surprise + purpose you + hide + self

You hid yourself in order to surprise us.

QaQ vI - Dub - meH qech - lIj
 * with nouns:

{be good} I-it + improve + purpose idea + your

Your idea on how I should improve it is good/Your idea for improving it is good. (lit. Your idea [for I improve it] is good)

Comparatives
In this section, noun phrases are indicated by the abbreviation NP, and adjectives by A.

Klingon comparatives mainly rely on adjectives like  (to be many),   (to be few),   (to be the same), and   (to resemble, to be like)  to contrast the nouns. However, many (but not all) of the comparatives have unusual word orders that don't parse as regular Klingon sentences.

qachvam chuʼ lawʼ juHlIj chu' puS
 * The main Klingon comparative structure is NP1 A  NP2 A   . The general meaning of this construction is "NP1 is more A than NP2".

{this building} {be new} {} {your home} {} {}

This building is newer than your home. (lit. this-building new many – home-your new few) qIDvetlh tlhaQ law' Hoch tlhaQ puS.
 * The structure NP1 A  A   is used to form superlatives, i.e. "NP1 has the most of quality A (= has more of quality A than anything/one else has)". (  = all, everyone, everything)

{that joke} {be funny} {} {} {be funny} {}

That joke is the funniest. (lit. joke-that funny many – everything funny few) Hoch quv lawʼ verengnan quv puS.
 * The inverse structure,   A   NP1 A   is used to indicate  "NP1 has the least of quality A".

{} {be honorable} {} {Ferengi} {} {}

Ferengi are the least honorable. (lit. everyone honorable many – Ferengi honorable few) ʼIQ rav rur
 * The structure A NP1; NP2   is used to form similes: "NP1 is A; he/she/it resembles NP2".

{be sad} floor {to resemble}

He is as sad as a floor. (lit. he is sad; he is like a floor)

Questions
A yes–no question in Klingon can be formed by adding the suffix to the regular form. The word for yes is  or   and the word for no is. Interrogative pronouns go where the answer would normally go, and don't reorder the sentence. Interrogative adverbs go at the beginning of the sentence.

Numbers
Klingon uses a base-10 system to count numbers. To form a multiple of 10, 100, 1 000, 1 000 000, the word for the multiple of ten is suffixed to the digit. For example,  eighty is a combination of the word   eight and the number forming suffix  ten.

Larger powers go before smaller powers:  is eight-ten seven. The number suffix is used to form ordinal numbers, and the number suffix  indicates how many times an action has been repeated:   fourth,   twelve times.