Jewish atheism

Jewish atheism refers to the atheism of people who are ethnically and (at least to some extent) culturally Jewish.

Contrary to popular belief, the term "Jewish atheism" is not a contradiction because Jewish identity encompasses not only religious components, but also ethnic and cultural ones. Jewish law's emphasis on descent through the mother means that even religiously conservative Orthodox Jewish authorities would accept an atheist born to a Jewish mother as fully Jewish.

Jewish secularism, which describes Jews who do not explicitly reject the existence of God but also do not believe it is an important part of their Jewishness, has a long tradition in the United States. A 2013 study conducted by the Pew Research Center found that 62% of self-described American Jews say being Jewish is mainly a matter of ancestry and culture, while just 15% say it is mainly a matter of religion. Even among Jews by religion, 55% say being Jewish is mainly a matter of ancestry and culture, while 66% say it is not necessary to believe in God to be Jewish.

Organized Jewish life
There has been a phenomenon of atheistic and secular Jewish organizations, mostly in the past century, from the Jewish socialist Bund in early twentieth-century Poland to the modern Congress of Secular Jewish Organizations and the Society for Humanistic Judaism in the United States.

Many Jewish atheists feel comfortable within any of the three major non-Orthodox Jewish denominations (Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist). This presents less of a contradiction than might first seem apparent, given Judaism's emphasis on practice over belief, with even mainstream guides to Judaism suggesting that belief in God is not a necessary prerequisite to Jewish observance. However, Orthodox Judaism regards the acceptance of the "Yoke of Heaven" (the sovereignty of the God of Israel in the world and the divine origin of the Torah) as a fundamental obligation for Jews, and the Reform movement has rejected efforts at affiliation by atheistic temples despite many Reform Jews being atheist/agnostic. Nevertheless, the presence of atheists in many denominations of modern Judaism from Secular Humanistic Judaism to Conservative Judaism has been noted.

Jewish theology
Nineteenth-century and early twentieth-century Reform Judaism in the US, which had become the dominant form of Judaism there by the 1880s, was profoundly shaped by its engagement with high-profile skeptics and atheists such as Robert Ingersoll and Felix Adler. These included the writings of rabbis such as Isaac Mayer Wise, Kaufmann Kohler, Emil G. Hirsch, Joseph Krauskopf, Aaron Hahn, and J. Leonard Levy, with the result that a distinctly panentheistic character of US Reform Jewish theology was observable, which many would have viewed as atheistic or espousing atheistic tendencies.

Liberal Jewish theology makes few metaphysical claims, and is thus compatible with atheism on an ontological level. The founder of Reconstructionist Judaism, Mordecai Kaplan, espoused a naturalistic definition of God, while some post-Holocaust theology has also eschewed a personal god. The Jewish philosopher Howard Wettstein has advanced a non-metaphysical approach to religious commitment, according to which metaphysical theism-atheism is not the issue. Harold Schulweis, a Conservative rabbi trained in the Reconstructionist tradition, has argued that Jewish theology should move from a focus on God to an emphasis on "godliness." This "predicate theology", while continuing to use theistic language, again makes few metaphysical claims that non-believers would find objectionable.

Secular Jewish culture
Many Jewish atheists would reject even this level of ritualized and symbolic identification, instead embracing a thoroughgoing secularism and basing their Jewishness entirely in ethnicity and secular Jewish culture. Possibilities for secular Jewishness include an identification with Jewish history and peoplehood, immersion in Jewish literature (including such non-religious Jewish authors as Philip Roth and Amos Oz), the consumption of Jewish food, the use of Jewish humor, and an attachment to Jewish languages such as Yiddish, Hebrew or Ladino. A high percentage of Israeli Jews identify themselves as secular, rejecting some religious practices (see Religion in Israel). While some non-believers of Jewish ancestry do not consider themselves Jews, preferring to define themselves solely as atheists, others believe Judaism is arguably a culture and tradition that can be embraced without religious faith, despite Jewish culture revolving around Abrahamic conceptions of God.

Many Jewish atheists continue to observe Jewish traditions, holidays, and customs, but they view them more as cultural heritage rather than religious obligations. For example, celebrating Hanukkah or Passover can be seen as an important family and cultural ritual rather than a religious act. In the documentary series Еврейское счастье (Jewish Happiness), alongside exploring other aspects, the theme 'Who is a Jew?' is extensively discussed. In one episode, a family of atheists deeply engages in certain Jewish religious traditions, such as Shabbat, which, as one of the documentary's characters asserts, has come to us as a tradition from ancient times but fits very well into contemporary reality. Specifically, it opens up the opportunity to simply spend the whole day communicating with one's children, free from pervasive modern issues like phubbing, FOMO and others.

Some jewish atheists are active in secular and humanist movements that advocate separation of church and state, human rights, and a scientific worldview.

Notable people
There are many famous Jews who were atheists or agnostics, including Albert Einstein, Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud. Their views on religion often influenced their works and philosophical positions, and had a huge influence on subsequent scientists and philosophers. Historically, many well-known Jews have rejected a belief in deities. Some have denied the existence of a traditional deity while continuing to use religious language. Karl Marx was born into an ethnically Jewish family but raised as a Lutheran, and is among the most notable and influential atheist thinkers of modern history; he developed dialectical and historical materialism which became the basis for his critique of capitalism and his theories of scientific socialism. Marx became a major influence among other prominent Jewish intellectuals including Moses Hess. In one of his most cited comments on religion he stated: "Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people."

The contradictory symbiosis between religiosity and atheism among atheists in the Jewish context has qualities of ambivalence and has been discussed extensively in The Cambridge Companion to Atheism as a primary source, as well as how Jewish thinkers deal with these dynamics. This nuanced connection is also evident in other prominent Jewish atheists who maintained their cultural identity. The text discusses how the concept of religion developed in a Judeo-Christian context can be incorrect when applied outside of that context. However, careful application of these concepts can shed light on the unique perspectives of Jewish atheist individuals who still value their cultural heritage. Sigmund Freud penned The Future of an Illusion, in which he both eschewed religious belief and outlined its origins and prospects. At the same time he urged a Jewish colleague to raise his son within the Jewish religion, arguing that "If you do not let your son grow up as a Jew, you will deprive him of those sources of energy which cannot be replaced by anything else." Other researchers have repeatedly written about his views on religion and Jewish identity.

Some other famous Jews have wholeheartedly embraced atheism, rejecting religiosity altogether. The anarchist Emma Goldman was born to an Orthodox Jewish family and rejected belief in God, while the Israeli prime minister Golda Meir, when asked if she believed in God, answered "I believe in the Jewish people, and the Jewish people believe in God." About David Ben-Gurion, the founder of Israel known for his atheism, it was often said: "Although he didn't believe in God, it seems God believed in him." In the world of entertainment, Woody Allen has made a career out of the tension between his Jewishness and religious doubt ("Not only is there no God, but try getting a plumber on weekends"). David Silverman, president of the American Atheists from 2010 to 2018, swore after his bar mitzvah that he would never again lie about not being an atheist. American Jewish author Philip Roth was an outspoken atheist and described himself as anti-religious. Ayn Rand, a Russia-born American philosopher of Jewish descent, was a staunch atheist and considered atheism an integral part of her philosophy of Objectivism. Her atheistic ideas significantly influenced libertarianism and contemporary culture. However, in an interview with Mike Wallace in 1959, Ayn Rand couldn't give a satisfactory answer to questions about the "devil-take-the-hindmost, dog-eat-dog society" and about state-provided social security (such as pensions, benefits, etc.), which effectively demonstrates that socialist theory softened capitalism due to impending reforms and societal changes, making it more perfect.

Research studies
Jewish atheism has a long history, with recorded sources dating back to the 17th century. Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza is considered the Jewish herald of the secular age. Pierre Bayle, in his Historical and Critical Dictionary, called Spinoza “the greatest atheist”. Jewish thinkers of the 19th century were especially zealous in accusing Spinoza of atheism (criticizing his work Ethics),   especially in terms of his denial of “revelation”, but this was not atheism in the modern sense.

In the 19th and 20th centuries, many Jews embraced secular and socialist ideals. Particularly in the Soviet Union and other Eastern European countries, many Jews became atheists under the influence of communist ideology.

Confirming the diverse history of Jewish atheism, reflecting a wide range of views and approaches to issues of faith and identity, an article by Vladimir Minkov on the Times of Israel portal discusses that a significant portion of modern US Jews identify themselves as atheists or agnostics. This phenomenon is due to various factors, including a lack of deep understanding of Jewish religious teachings and the desire to find a Jewish identity outside of traditional religious frameworks. Additionally, interviews with Jewish atheists published in Tablet highlight that many of them continue to observe Jewish traditions and participate in cultural activities despite renouncing their religious beliefs. This demonstrates ambivalence when cultural-ethnic identity and a certain religiosity are preserved even in the absence of faith in God. These examples show that atheism among Jews is not only widespread, but also multifaceted, providing rich material for research and discussion on the topic of faith and identity in the Jewish context, as the Journal of Jewish Identities discusses how Jewish identity is transformed and maintained, despite the lack of belief in God, which makes atheism among Jews an interesting subject for interdisciplinary research.