Jewish community of Mainz

The Jewish Community of Mainz had significance throughout Europe in the High Middle Ages, was destroyed several times, and has re-emerged even after the Holocaust.

Until the 11th Century
The origins of the Jewish community in Mainz are unclear. It is assumed that Jews had already come to the Middle Rhine during the time of the Roman Empire. However, there is so far no evidence for this assumption in Mainz. The first reliable evidence of a Jewish community is provided by rabbinical legal opinions from the second half of the 10th century, when a flourishing community already existed in Mainz. In the 10th century, Jewish families also began immigrating from Italy and southern France. The community in Mainz became a well-known center of Ashkenazic Judaism. The most famous scholar of that time was Gershom ben Judah, born around 960 in Metz, who worked in Mainz, where he died in 1028 or 1040. He founded a Jewish academy (Yeshiva) and thus strengthened a form of Judaism independent of the tradition of the Babylonian religious schools. Simeon bar Isaac was a rabbi and leader of the Jewish community of Mainz.

The oldest archaeological evidence of the Jewish community of Mainz dates from the 11th century.

11th Century
In 1093, a synagogue was mentioned for the first time, located on the corner plot at Schusterstrasse/Stadthausstrasse. The oldest gravestone in the old Jewish cemetery - the only Jewish cemetery in Mainz until 1880 - dates from 1049 and is thus the oldest in Central Europe. At that time, the residential area of the Jews was located along the Rhine between the Fischtor and Karmeliterkirche gates. This residential quarter was not a ghetto; rather, most of the inhabitants there were non-Jews. A synod in 1310 prohibited this mixed dwelling. The leading class of Mainz Jews was primarily involved in long-distance trade. From Mainz, the Jews traded in spices, silk, furs and metalwares. The Jewish residential quarter was conveniently located for this, as the trade center Am Brand, the city's most important market for goods arriving by ship, was located just to the south. There was also a spatial proximity to the prince-elector's court. The king had entrusted the protection of the Jews to the Prince-Elector of Mainz. The Jews were also active in lending, which was hindered for the Christian population by the prohibition of interest. Jews also owned vineyards both inside and outside the city. They were considered free and able to bear arms, allowed to keep non-Christian slaves, and able to live according to their own laws, which increasingly conformed to the laws of non-Jews by the beginning of the 13th century. The community was led by parnasim, trustees and elders who together formed the Jewish council. The privileges for Jewish merchants regulated in Jewish law were already the subject of hostilities in the 11th century. In 1012, King Heinrich II expelled the Jews from Mainz for the first time. In 1084, after a fire in the Jewish quarter, there were clashes that led to the flight of Jews to Speyer, where the local bishop, Rüdiger Huzmann, granted them a favorable privilege, thereby promoting the town's development.

Crusade of 1096
The most serious event in the history of the medieval Jewish community in Mainz was the Crusade (anti-Jewish pogrom) of 1096, in which Archbishop Ruthard completely failed in the task of protecting the Jews that had been entrusted to him by the Emperor. In the Jewish liturgy, the victims of this massacre are commemorated under the name Gezerot Tatnu ("Persecution of the Year 4856" (according to the Jewish calendar)). In 1097, Emperor Henry IV enabled those who had been forced to convert during the pogrom to return to their ancestral faith. The Jewish community thus continued to exist.

New beginning: 11th to 14th Century
Together with the communities in Speyer and Worms, the community of Mainz formed the center of Ashkenazic Judaism. These three Shum cities - Shpira (Speyer), Vermaisia (Worms) and Magenza (Mainz) - formed an association from the 12th to the 14th century, had joint advisory bodies, and from the 1220s a common law (Taqqanot Qehillot Shum) with high authority in northern Central Europe. The protection of the Jews was the responsibility of the Emperor, for which they paid him taxes, a responsibility that he had granted to the Archbishop of Mainz as an imperial fief. After receiving municipal freedom in 1244, this responsibility passed to the City of Mainz in 1295. During all further Crusades there were outbursts against the Jews of the city, though these did not reach the dimension of the pogrom of 1096. In the 14th century, anti-Jewish sentiments intensified again. On 28 August 1349, there was a major pogrom in Mainz that few Jews survived, and parts of the Jewish quarter burned down as a result. The property left behind by the dead and the refugees was confiscated by the city council. It was not until 1356 that Jews returned to the city again. The council rented them the buildings it administered under the name "Judenerbe" (Jewish inheritance). Emperor Charles IV issued the returnees a comprehensive letter of protection. In contrast to earlier times, the leadership of the Jewish community now consisted of the community's rabbi and three trustees elected at the beginning of each year. The circumstances of the Jewish community were constantly threatened in physical and economic terms: high taxes, debt remissions in favor of their creditors, and economic restrictions jeopardized their livelihood. Additionally, the community only had the right to remain for the duration of letters of protection issued by the city council. The oldest surviving document of this kind dates from 1365.

Expulsions in the 15th Century
In the 15th century, the prohibition for Christians lending with interest gradually loosened. As a result, many cities and territories expelled their Jewish populations, whose services were no longer deemed necessary. In Mainz, this coincided with the conflict between the patricians and guilds, who were fighting for power in the city council. The victory of the guilds worsened the situation for the Jews, as the guilds were more anti-Semitic.

In 1438, the city council ordered the expulsion of the Jews on 25 July 1438. The Jewish cemetery was desecrated, and the synagogue was converted into a coal depot. In 1444, however, the city's high debts prompted the council to call the Jews back. 25 July 1445 is considered the day the Jewish Community of Mainz was re-established. At this time it comprised between 100 and 130 people, about 1.7 to 1.9% of the total population.

Since the Jews, like many other citizens during the Mainz Abbey Feud, were supporters of Diether von Isenburg, they were expelled from the city along with other followers of Diether by his opponent Adolph II of Nassau after his victory on 28 October 1462. In 1463, Adolf II called them back before expelling them again from the entire Electorate in 1471. Jewish property was confiscated, and the synagogue converted into a church.

Revival of the community from the 16th Century
However, the expulsions did not mean – as previously assumed – the complete end of Jewish life in the city. Records from the reign of Archbishop Berthold von Henneberg (1484–1504) show that Jewish citizens took care of the mikveh and accommodated traveling Jews. They were also responsible for burying Jews at Jewish cemetery, which could only refer to Jews of the Electorate of Mainz. A further expulsion from the Electorate, ordered by Archbishop Jakob von Liebenstein on 3 June 1507, also proves that Jews continued to live here.

In 1510, the new Archbishop Uriel von Gemmingen protested against the actions of Johannes Pfefferkorn, who confiscated and burned Jewish books in Mainz. Emperor Maximilian I appointed an investigative commission, and Uriel von Gemmingen was named its chairman. Especially Johann Reuchlin, who was called to the commission, sharply condemned the Dominicans' initiative of Pfefferkorn and advocated a more understanding approach towards Judaism.

In 1517, Archbishop Albert of Brandenburg admitted numerous Jews to the Archbishopric. In 1594, there was again a synagogue in the city, and a 1614 assessment book mentions six Jewish families in the city. There was no rabbi at that time, so the Jews turned to the rabbis in Worms and Frankfurt am Main on religious matters. In 1602, the Mainz Jews were assigned the rabbi in Bingen, and in 1630 the community in Mainz again had its own rabbi again.

In 1639, a new synagogue opened on Klarastrasse at the corner of Stadionerhofstrasse, and was already expanded in 1649. In 1644, there were 40 Jewish homeowners and tenants, as well as 15 subtenants in the city, living on Langgasse, Bleiche, Emmeranstrasse, near the Franciscan church, on Betzelstrasse, Schillerplatz, Fischmarkt, near the Christoph church and on Karmeliterplatz.

The Jewish Policy of the Prince-Electors in the 17th and 18th Centuries
A deep incision for Jewish life was the Jewish policy of the Prince-Electors of Mainz from the 17th century onwards. After complaints from merchants about unwanted competition from Jewish traders, the Prince-Elector and territorial lord of Mainz, Johann Philipp von Schönborn, expelled all Jewish families except for 20 from the city on 8 December 1662. The remaining families had to live in a ghetto, a street which they had to close off on Sundays. They were not allowed to work in guilded trades. The decree proved unenforceable, so in 1671 the Prince-Elector issued another decree limiting the number of families to 10 – a restriction that also failed. He then assigned them the old Judengasse near the Poor Clares Convent as a ghetto. The resettlement took place as part of an urban expansion planned by the Prince-Elector, which involved major development measures and the construction of prestigious buildings. The properties were provided to the Jews free of charge, and the Prince-Elector also granted them – just like the Christians – discounts on craftsmen and building materials. Soon the "Hintere Judengasse" (Rear Jewish Street) was added to the "Vordere Judengasse" (Front Jewish Street). In the center from 1684 was the new, albeit unimpressive synagogue. In 1687, about 250 Jews lived in Mainz, about 1% of the total population. In 1717, the synagogue was enlarged.

Despite all outward restrictions, the Jewish community had rather extensive internal autonomy. It also had its own seal and the status of a corporation. The community leadership consisted of five trustees, five tax collectors and five deputies each, with the office of Parnas Hachodesch (president) rotating monthly. The leadership collected state taxes from community members themselves and passed them on to the princely administration. The rabbi exercised jurisdiction in the first instance. The second instance was the princely court.

Prince-Elector Lothar Franz von Schönborn (1695–1729) limited the number of protected families to 101. In addition, there were the rabbi, the cantor, the schoolkeeper, the doctor and the court factor, protected widows, the servants and the students of the rabbi. Admission to the Jewish community was only permitted if the number of 101 families was not exceeded. Admission fees and taxation of Jews was significantly higher than for Christian citizens of Mainz.

From 1710 onwards, the Jewish community acquired land adjacent to the Judengasse and built additional houses there. In 1768, Prince-Elector Emmerich Joseph von Breidbach zu Bürresheim permitted Jews to build further houses, including outside the two Judengassen. This effectively abolished the restriction to the ghetto.

The Enlightenment brought relief for Jews as well. Under Prince-Elector Friedrich Karl Joseph von Erthal (1774–1802), there were discussion about improving the social situation of Jewish subjects. However, opening up guilded professions to Jews was still rejected. Jews were permitted to establish businesses and manufactures without guild organisation that did not require journeymen or apprentices. Moreover, reforming the education system and alleviating the pressing housing shortage in the quarter now inhabited by 848 Jews seemed a priority to the authorities. Jewish children were recommended to attend Christian schools. Furthermore, a rescript from the Prince-Elector instructed the authorities to treat Jews and Christians equally. However, the emancipation of Jews was still unimaginable in the estate-based society.

Emancipation through France
Emancipation came from external forces after the defeat of the Empire in the Revolutionary Wars and the occupation of Mainz by France in 1792. Since all Jews in France had enjoyed full citizenship rights since 1791, this now applied to the Jewish community of Mainz. On 3 November 1792, when the Liberty Tree was erected, Jews stood alongside all others as equals.

Nevertheless, the Jewish community remained hostile towards the newly founded Mainz Jacobin Club. Jews who joined were subject to synagogue bans. Only 18 Jews responded to the call to swear allegiance to the revolutionary French constitution in 1793, which accounted for 15% of household heads. However, those who refused to swear allegiance faced expulsion. After the imperial troops besieged the city in 1793, the "unsworn", including many Jews, had to leave the city. Subsequently, the return of German authorities was met with satisfaction by the Jews. The reason for this hostile attitude of the Jews towards the Jacobins was, on the one hand, a skepticism towards innovations in general. Added to this were the reservations of the Mainz Jacobins towards the Jews and the fear that entry into the bourgeoisie would endanger religious adherence to the law.

However, after the French reoccupied the city in 1797, such concerns dissipated, partly due to the changed spirit of the times. In 1798, Ludwig Bamberger became the first Jew to sit on the city council. In the same year, the Jewish guardhouse in the old ghetto was torn down. Jews were now allowed to settle as citizens throughout the city.

Even under Napoleon, Jewish life was not free from regulations. Napoleon decreed a centralized communal system. A consistory was established in each department, which was subordinate to the central consistory in Paris. The consistory consisted of two rabbis and three laymen, who had to be confirmed by the French government. Responsible for the consistorial administration in each departmental capital was a chief rabbi. The chief rabbi of Mainz was Rabbi Samuel Wolf Levi (1751–1813). According to an imperial decree of 17 March 1808, a Jew was not allowed to engage in trade for ten years unless he had a corresponding patent. These patents certified by the mayor's office that the person had not been guilty of usury and by the Jewish community that he had behaved uprightly and faithfully fulfilled his obligations ("morality patents").

Development of Emancipation after 1816
After Napoleon's defeat and the departure of the French from Mainz in 1816, the city became part of the Grand Duchy of Hesse as the capital of the newly formed province of Rheinhessen. The new government explicitly assured that it would not change the legal situation introduced under French rule. Only in 1847 were the morality patents abolished and Jews were still denied entry into the civil service.

In 1819, the Jewish community reintroduced the rules on board elections from 1750. The board consisted of five persons chaired by the president. A regulation from 1830 stipulated that the district office had to appoint the board members after consulting the mayor's office. The communities now officially bore the name "Israelitische Religionsgemeinde" ("Israelite Religious Community") and had the right to levy assessments on their members. In 1831, a new synagogue ordinance came into force, followed by a new burial ordinance in 1832. In 1850, there were 2,125 Jews living in the city out of a total population of 37,000.

Division of the community
Reforms and emancipation also raised concerns that Jewish identity could be lost through assimilation. Deeply intrusive reforms in the religious rituals, such as replacing the Bar Mitzvah with a confirmation in 1840, or the planned abolition of the separate women's synagogue, led to serious disputes. In 1849, this culminated in a division of the Jewish community into Orthodox and liberal factions with separate administrations, community lives, synagogues, schools, and facilities. However, both communities continued to function outwardly as a corporation. Joseph Aub served as the rabbi of the liberal community from 1852 to 1865, while the Orthodox community was led by Marcus Lehmann.

New flourishing period
Despite the division, the period from the second half of the 19th century until 1933 can be considered a flourishing time for the Jewish community of Mainz. This is evidenced not least by the construction of new synagogues. The Mainz Main Synagogue in Neo-Byzantine style, designed by architect Ignaz Opfermann, was completed in 1853. It was replaced by a new building in 1912, designed by architect Willy Graf.

Members of the community participated in the city's association life, charitable activities, and sponsorship, for example, supporting the municipal theater and various sports clubs, including 1. FSV Mainz 05. Antisemitic political parties had no significant success in Mainz. However, materially, things were worse for the "Eastern Jews" who immigrated, especially after World War I – pogrom refugees from the then-Russian part of Poland, who had already founded the "Israelite Humanitarian Association" as the third subgroup of Mainz Jews in 1908. The influx of this group, which was unfamiliar with the mentality of the Rhineland Jews, exacerbated the contrasts between liberals and Orthodox within the community.

Downfall of the community during the Nazi Era
With the "seizure of power" by the Nazis in 1933, the disenfranchisement of Jewish citizens began in Mainz: dismissal from public service, boycott of Jewish businesses, exclusion from schools, expropriation, and revocation of citizenship. During the Kristallnacht on 9-10 November 1938, the main synagogue and the synagogue on Flachsmarktstraße were set on fire, and the main synagogue was subsequently demolished. The Jewish community had to bear the costs of the demolition. However, part of the Jewish library was rescued. It is now on loan to the Protestant Theological Faculty of the University of Mainz and comprises approximately 5,500 volumes.

In 1942, the deportation of Mainz Jews began. On 30 March 1942, 450 people were taken to the Piaski concentration camp near Lublin, and on 27 September, another 450 Jews were sent to the Theresienstadt concentration camp. Three days later, 117 Jews were deported to the General Government in Poland. In the last transport on 10 February 1943, 15 Jews from Mainz were deported, totaling 1,092 people. There were also Jews who were removed from the city on smaller transports. 1,420 Jews from Mainz were able to leave Germany in time.

When the US Army captured the city on 22 March 1945, there were still 61 Jews living in the city. These were Jews who lived in "privileged mixed marriages I," from which children had been born. On 10 July 1945, two survivors returned to Mainz from Theresienstadt, but this was unusual.

New beginning after the Holocaust
On 17 October 1945, the Mainz cultural director and survivor Michel Oppenheim, a Jew from Mainz, applied to the French military government – Mainz now belonged to the French occupation zone – for the re-establishment of the Mainz Jewish community. Permission was granted on the same day. On 9 November 1945, 20 gathered Jews at the city hall decided to re-establish the community. However, services did not resume until 10 September 1947, when a new synagogue was established at the Feldberg School. In 1948, the community erected a memorial at the entrance of the Jewish cemetery on Untere Zahlbacher Straße. Another memorial is represented by the erected columns from the entrance hall of the destroyed main synagogue of 1912.

The rebuilding of the community after the war was slow. The main problem was the low number of members, which also delayed the construction of a new synagogue for a long time. Since 1959, the Jewish Community of Mainz has been a corporation under public law. Construction of the New Synagogue – at the old location – began on 23 November 2008. It was inaugurated on 3 September 2010.

Jewish Community today
The Jewish community in Mainz has approximately 1000 members (as of 2015 ), with many of the community members coming as immigrants from Eastern European countries.

The remaining Jewish sites in Worms, especially the reconstructed medieval synagogue and the old Jewish cemetery, a Jewish cemetery dating back to the High Middle Ages in terms of its occupancy, are also under the auspicies of the Jewish community of Mainz. Since 2021, the synagogue and cemetery in Worms, as well as the historic Jewish cemetery in Mainz, have been part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The community rabbi is Rabbi Aharon Ran Vernikovsky. The community is led by a five-member, volunteer board, which is elected every 4 years.