Kashmiris

Kashmiris are an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group speaking the Kashmiri language and originating from the Kashmir Valley, which is today located in Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir.

History
The earliest known Neolithic sites in Kashmir valley are from c. 3000 BCE. The most important sites are at Burzahom. During the later Vedic period, the Uttara–Kurus settled in Kashmir.

During the reign of Ashoka (304–232 BCE), Kashmir became part of the Maurya Empire and the city of Srinagari (Srinagar) was built. Kanishka (127–151 CE), an emperor of the Kushan dynasty, conquered Kashmir. In the eighth century, during the Karkota Empire, Kashmir grew as an imperial power. Lalitaditya Muktapida defeated Yashovarman of Kanyakubja and conquered the eastern kingdoms of Magadha, Kamarupa, Gauda, and Kalinga. He defeated the Arabs at Sindh. The Utpala dynasty, founded by Avantivarman, followed the Karkotas. Queen Didda, who descended from the Hindu Shahis of Udabhandapura on her mother's side, took over as ruler in the second half of the 10th century. After her death in 1003 CE, the Lohara dynasty ruled the region.

In 1339, Shah Mir became the ruler of Kashmir, establishing the Shah Mir dynasty. During the rule of the Shah Mir dynasty, Islam spread in Kashmir. From 1586 to 1751, the Mughal Empire ruled Kashmir. The Afghan Durrani Empire ruled from 1747 until 1819. The Sikhs, under Ranjit Singh, annexed Kashmir in 1819. In 1846, after the First Anglo-Sikh War, the Treaty of Lahore was signed and upon the purchase of the region from the British under the Treaty of Amritsar, the Raja of Jammu, Gulab Singh, became ruler of Kashmir. The rule of the Dogra dynasty under the British Crown lasted until 1947, when the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir became part of India. It is now a disputed territory, administered by three countries: India, Pakistan, and the People's Republic of China.

Geographic distribution
There are about 6.8 million speakers of Kashmiri and related dialects in Jammu and Kashmir and amongst the Kashmiri diaspora in other states of India. Most Kashmiris are located in the Kashmir Valley and other areas of Jammu and Kashmir. In the Kashmir valley, they form a majority.

Kashmiri is spoken by roughly five per cent of Azad Kashmir's population. According to the 1998 Pakistan Census, there were 132,450 Kashmiri speakers in Azad Kashmir. Native speakers of the language were dispersed in "pockets" throughout Azad Kashmir, particularly in the districts of Muzaffarabad (15%), Neelam (20%) and Hattian (15%), with very small minorities in Haveli (5%) and Bagh (2%). The Kashmiri spoken in Muzaffarabad is distinct from, although still intelligible with, the Kashmiri of the Neelam Valley to the north. In Neelam Valley, Kashmiri is the second most widely spoken language and the majority language in at least a dozen or so villages, where in about half of these, it is the sole mother tongue. The Kashmiri dialect of Neelum is closer to the variety spoken in northern Kashmir Valley, particularly Kupwara. At the 2017 Census of Pakistan, as many as 350,000 people declared their first language to be Kashmiri.

A process of language shift is observable among Kashmiri-speakers in Azad Kashmir according to linguist Tariq Rahman, as they gradually adopt local dialects such as Pahari-Pothwari, Hindko or move towards the lingua franca Urdu. This has resulted in these languages gaining ground at the expense of Kashmiri. There have been calls for the promotion of Kashmiri at an official level; in 1983, a Kashmiri Language Committee was set up by the government to patronise Kashmiri and impart it in school-level education. However, the limited attempts at introducing the language have not been successful, and it is Urdu, rather than Kashmiri, that Kashmiri Muslims have seen as their identity symbol. Rahman notes that efforts to organise a Kashmiri language movement have been challenged by the scattered nature of the Kashmiri-speaking community in Azad Kashmir.

Language
The Kashmiri language is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India. It was a part of the eighth Schedule in the former constitution of the Jammu and Kashmir. Along with other regional languages mentioned in the Sixth Schedule, as well as Hindi and Urdu, the Kashmiri language was to be developed in the state.

Persian began to be used as the court language in Kashmir during the 14th centuries, under the influence of Islam. It was replaced by Urdu in 1889 during the Dogra rule. In 2020, Kashmiri became an official language in the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir for the first time.

Kashmiri is closely related to Poguli and Kishtwari, which are spoken in the mountains to the south of the Kashmir Valley and have sometimes been counted as dialects of Kashmiri.

Krams (surnames)




Kashmiri Hindus are Saraswat Brahmins and are known by the exonym Pandit. The Muslims living in Kashmir are of the same stock as the Kashmiri Pandit community and are designated as Kashmiri Muslims. Kashmiri Muslims are descended from Kashmiri Hindus who converted to Islam and are also known as 'Sheikhs'. Kashmiri Pandits are the precursors of Kashmiri Muslims who now form a majority population in the valley of Kashmir. Both the Kashmiri Hindus and Muslim society reckons descent patrilineally. Certain property and titles may be inherited through the male line, but certain inheritances may accrue through the female line. After Kashmiri Hindus had converted to Islam they largely retained their family names (kram) which indicated their original profession, locality or community. These include:


 * Bhat, Bhatt or Butt
 * Dhar/Dar
 * Pandit
 * Kaul
 * Raina
 * Kak
 * Kachru
 * Kichlu
 * Mantu/Mantoo/Mintoo
 * Fotedar
 * Haksar
 * Handoo
 * Parimoo
 * Mattoo
 * Rajguru
 * Bhan
 * Bazaz
 * Bakshi
 * Rather
 * Razdan
 * Munshi
 * Sapru
 * Thussu
 * Tikoo
 * Zutshi
 * Magre/Magray
 * Yatoo
 * Wali
 * Wanchoo
 * Wazir
 * Madan
 * Wani
 * Lone
 * Mir
 * Ganai
 * Tantray
 * Parray

Music
The traditional types of music of Kashmir are Sufi Kalam, Wanwun, Chakri, Henzae, and Ladishah.

Some of the musical instruments used in Kashmir are Rubab, Tumbaknaer (which is of Iranian origin) and Santoor. A traditional dance form usually performed by women on occasions like marriages and similar social functions is Rouf.

Cuisine
Meat and rice are popular food items in Kashmir, rice being considered a staple food.

Noon Chai or Sheer Chai and Kahweh are beverages of Kashmir.

Wazwan is a multi-course meal in Kashmir prepared by skilled chefs called Wazas. Kashmir is also known for its baking traditions. Sheermal, Bagerkhayn (puff pastry), Lavas (unleavened bread), Tsochwor (hard, bagel-shaped bread) and Kulche are popular baked goods.

Encyclopedia

 * Khan, Nyla Ali. Kashmir. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Women.
 * Khan, Nyla Ali. Kashmir. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Women.

Scholarly books

 * Ames, Frank (1986). The Kashmir shawl and its Indo-French influence. Antique Collectors' Club. ISBN 9780907462620.
 * C. Baron V. Hugel, Annotated By D.C. Sharma (1984). Kashmir Under Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors Pvt Ltd. ISBN 9788171560943.
 * Drace-Francis, Alex, European Identity: A Historical Readered. European Identity: a historical reader.] Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.
 * Watt, George (2014). A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, Part 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108068796.
 * C. Baron V. Hugel, Annotated By D.C. Sharma (1984). Kashmir Under Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors Pvt Ltd. ISBN 9788171560943.
 * Drace-Francis, Alex, European Identity: A Historical Readered. European Identity: a historical reader.] Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.
 * Watt, George (2014). A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, Part 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108068796.
 * Drace-Francis, Alex, European Identity: A Historical Readered. European Identity: a historical reader.] Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.
 * Watt, George (2014). A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, Part 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108068796.
 * Watt, George (2014). A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, Part 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108068796.
 * Watt, George (2014). A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, Part 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108068796.
 * Watt, George (2014). A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, Part 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108068796.
 * Watt, George (2014). A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, Part 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108068796.
 * Watt, George (2014). A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, Part 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108068796.
 * Watt, George (2014). A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, Part 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108068796.
 * Watt, George (2014). A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, Part 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108068796.
 * Watt, George (2014). A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, Part 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108068796.

Books

 * Dar, P Krishna (2000). Kashmiri Cooking. Penguin UK. ISBN 9789351181699.
 * Madison Books; Andrews McMeel Publishing, LLC; Corby Kummer (1 November 2007). 1001 Foods To Die For. Andrews McMeel Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7407-7043-2.
 * Solomon H. Katz; William Woys Weaver (2003). Encyclopedia of Food and Culture: Food production to Nuts. Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-80566-5.
 * The Panjab Past and Present. Department of Punjab Historical Studies, Punjabi University. 1993. p. 22.
 * Dar, P Krishna (2000). Kashmiri Cooking. Penguin UK. ISBN 9789351181699.
 * Madison Books; Andrews McMeel Publishing, LLC; Corby Kummer (1 November 2007). 1001 Foods To Die For. Andrews McMeel Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7407-7043-2.
 * Solomon H. Katz; William Woys Weaver (2003). Encyclopedia of Food and Culture: Food production to Nuts. Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-80566-5.
 * The Panjab Past and Present. Department of Punjab Historical Studies, Punjabi University. 1993. p. 22.
 * Madison Books; Andrews McMeel Publishing, LLC; Corby Kummer (1 November 2007). 1001 Foods To Die For. Andrews McMeel Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7407-7043-2.
 * Solomon H. Katz; William Woys Weaver (2003). Encyclopedia of Food and Culture: Food production to Nuts. Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-80566-5.
 * The Panjab Past and Present. Department of Punjab Historical Studies, Punjabi University. 1993. p. 22.
 * Madison Books; Andrews McMeel Publishing, LLC; Corby Kummer (1 November 2007). 1001 Foods To Die For. Andrews McMeel Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7407-7043-2.
 * Solomon H. Katz; William Woys Weaver (2003). Encyclopedia of Food and Culture: Food production to Nuts. Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-80566-5.
 * The Panjab Past and Present. Department of Punjab Historical Studies, Punjabi University. 1993. p. 22.
 * Solomon H. Katz; William Woys Weaver (2003). Encyclopedia of Food and Culture: Food production to Nuts. Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-80566-5.
 * The Panjab Past and Present. Department of Punjab Historical Studies, Punjabi University. 1993. p. 22.
 * Solomon H. Katz; William Woys Weaver (2003). Encyclopedia of Food and Culture: Food production to Nuts. Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-80566-5.
 * The Panjab Past and Present. Department of Punjab Historical Studies, Punjabi University. 1993. p. 22.
 * Solomon H. Katz; William Woys Weaver (2003). Encyclopedia of Food and Culture: Food production to Nuts. Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-80566-5.
 * The Panjab Past and Present. Department of Punjab Historical Studies, Punjabi University. 1993. p. 22.
 * Solomon H. Katz; William Woys Weaver (2003). Encyclopedia of Food and Culture: Food production to Nuts. Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-80566-5.
 * The Panjab Past and Present. Department of Punjab Historical Studies, Punjabi University. 1993. p. 22.
 * Solomon H. Katz; William Woys Weaver (2003). Encyclopedia of Food and Culture: Food production to Nuts. Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-80566-5.
 * The Panjab Past and Present. Department of Punjab Historical Studies, Punjabi University. 1993. p. 22.
 * Solomon H. Katz; William Woys Weaver (2003). Encyclopedia of Food and Culture: Food production to Nuts. Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-80566-5.
 * The Panjab Past and Present. Department of Punjab Historical Studies, Punjabi University. 1993. p. 22.

Journal articles

 * Bhasin, M.K.; Nag, Shampa (2002). "A Demographic Profile of the People of Jammu and Kashmir"(PDF). Journal of Human Ecology
 * Journal of History. Department of History, Jadavpur University. 1981. p. 76.
 * The Journal of the Anthropological Survey of India, Volume 52. The Survey.
 * The quarterly journal of the Mythic society (Bangalore)., Volume 96. The Society.
 * The quarterly journal of the Mythic society (Bangalore)., Volume 96. The Society.