Siraya language

Siraya is a Formosan language spoken until the end of the 19th century by the indigenous Siraya people of Taiwan, derived from Proto-Siraya. Some scholars believe Taivoan and Makatao are two dialects of Siraya, but now more evidence shows that they should be classified as separate languages.

Several Siraya communities have been involved in a Sirayan cultural and language revitalization movement for more than a decade. Through linguistic research and language teaching, the natives are 'awaking' their ancestors mother tongue that has been 'dormant' for a century. Today a group of Siraya children in Sinhua District of Tainan particularly in Kou-pei and Chiou Chen Lin area are able to speak and sing in the Siraya language.

Dialects
The Sirayaic languages were previously thought to include three languages or dialects:


 * Siraya proper — spoken in the coastal area of Tainan Plain.
 * Taivoan — spoken mostly in the inland of Tainan Plain to the north (just west of Southern Tsouic territories).
 * Makatao — spoken in Kaohsiung and Pingtung Prefectures to the south (just west of Paiwan territories).

However, more and more evidences have shown that Siraya, Taivoan, and Makatao are three different languages, rather than three dialects:

Documentary evidence
In "De Dagregisters van het Kasteel Zeelandia" written by the Dutch colonizers during 1629–1662, it was clearly said that when the Dutch people would like to speak to the chieftain of Cannacannavo (Kanakanavu), they needed to translate from Dutch to Sinckan (Siraya), from Sinckan to Tarroequan (possibly a Paiwan or a Rukai language), from Tarroequan to Taivoan, and from Taivoan to Cannacannavo. "'...... in Cannacannavo: Aloelavaos tot welcken de vertolckinge in Sinccans, Tarrocquans en Tevorangs geschiede, weder voor een jaer aengenomen' — 'De Dagregisters van het Kasteel Zeelandia', pp.6–8"

Linguistic evidence
A comparison of numerals of Siraya, Taivoan (Tevorangh dialect), and Makatao (Kanapo dialect) with Proto-Austronesian language show the difference among the three Austronesian languages in southwestern Taiwan in the early 20th century:

In 2009, further proved the relationship among the three languages, based on the latest linguistic observations below:

Based on the discovery, Li attempted two classification trees:

1. Tree based on the number of phonological innovations
 * Sirayaic
 * Taivoan
 * Siraya–Makatao
 * Siraya
 * Makatao

2. Tree based on the relative chronology of sound changes
 * Sirayaic
 * Siraya
 * Taivoan–Makatao
 * Taivoan
 * Makatau

Li (2009) considers the second tree (the one containing the Taivoan–Makatao group) to be the somewhat more likely one.

Lee (2015) regards that, when Siraya was a lingua franca among at least eight indigenous communities in southwestern Taiwan plain, Taivoan people from Tevorangh, who has been proved to have their own language in "De Dagregisters van het Kasteel Zeelandia", might still need the translation service from Wanli, a neighbor community that shared common hunting field and also a militarily alliance with Tevorangh.

Phonology
The phonological system of Siraya is speculated by Adelaar (1997) to have the following phonemes.

Consonants (18–20 total) "b d nḡ p t k m n ng l, r v z c [f] s x h w y"

Vowels (7 total)
 * a, ä, i (ĭ), e, ə, u (ŭ), o

Diphthongs (6 total)
 * ay, ey, uy, äw, aw, ow

Palatalization also occurs in many words.

Grammar
Siraya auxiliaries constitute an open class and are placed at the head of the verb phrase (Adelaar 1997).

Pronouns
The Siraya personal pronouns below are from Adelaar (1997).

Function words
The list of function words below is sourced from Adelaar (1997).

Demonstratives
 * atta, k(a)-atta 'this, these'
 * anna, k(a)-anna 'that, those'

Interrogatives
 * mang 'what?'
 * ti mang 'who?'
 * tu mang 'where'
 * mama mang, mama ki mang, mameymang 'how?'
 * kaumang 'why?'

Negation markers
 * assi (also "aoussi") 'no(t)'
 * ĭnna' don't'
 * nĭnno 'nothing'
 * mi-kakua.. . assi ("myhkaqua ... assi") 'never'
 * ĭnnang ("ynnang") 'refuse to, not want to; don't'

Other words
 * ti – personal article
 * ta – topic marker
 * tu – locative marker
 * ki – default relation marker
 * tu ämäx ki – "before"
 * tu lam ki – "together with"
 * ka – coordinating conjunction (links verbal clauses)

Verbs
The following list of Siraya verb affixes is from Adelaar (1997).


 * Affixes
 * ni-: past tense
 * ma-, m-, -m-: actor focus / orientation
 * pa-: undergoer focus / orientation
 * mey- ~ pey-: actor- and undergoer-oriented verbs (used with verbs describing a high degree of physical involvement)
 * mu- ~ (p)u-: actor- and undergoer-oriented verbs (used with verbs describing a movement toward something)
 * ma-: stative intransitive verbs; words with no apparent word-class affiliations (precategorials)
 * paka-: causative
 * pa-: transitive (often with causative result)
 * ka-: expresses feeling, emotion, sensation (undergoer-oriented verbs and deverbal nouns only)
 * -ən, -an: undergoer focus / orientation
 * -a, -ey, -aw: irrealis
 * -(l)ato: possibly a perfective marker

See also Proto-Austronesian language for a list of Proto-Austronesian verbal affixes.

Like Bunun and many other Formosan languages, Siraya has a rich set of verbal classifier prefixes.
 * Classifiers


 * mattäy- / pattäy-: "talking, saying"
 * smaki-: "throwing,casting"
 * sau-: "swearing, making an oath"
 * mu-, pu-: movement into a certain direction
 * mey- / pey-: high degree of physical involvement
 * sa-: movement through a narrow place
 * taw-: downward movement, a movement within a confined space

Numerals
Siraya has a base ten numeral system with the following forms: