Torres–Banks languages

The Torres–Banks languages form a linkage of Southern Oceanic languages spoken in the Torres Islands and Banks Islands of northern Vanuatu.

Languages
François (2011) recognizes 17 languages spoken by 9,400 people in 50 villages, including 16 living (3 of which are moribund) and one extinct language.

The 17 languages, ranked from northwest to southeast, are:


 * {| class="wikitable sortable"

! Language !! Number of speakers !! ISO 639-3 code !! Island(s) spoken
 * Hiw || 280 || [hiw] || Hiw
 * Lo-Toga || 580 || [lht] || Tegua, Lo, Toga
 * Lehali || 200 || [tql] || Ureparapara
 * Löyöp || 240 || [urr] || Ureparapara
 * Volow || extinct || [mlv] || Mota Lava
 * Mwotlap || 2100 || [mlv] || Mota Lava
 * Lemerig || 2 (moribund) || [lrz] || Vanua Lava
 * Vera'a || 500 || [vra] || Vanua Lava
 * Vurës || 2000 || [msn] || Vanua Lava
 * Mwesen || 10 (moribund) || [msn] || Vanua Lava
 * Mota || 750 || [mtt] || Mota
 * Nume || 700 || [tgs] || Gaua
 * Dorig || 300 || [wwo] || Gaua
 * Koro || 250 || [krf] || Gaua
 * Olrat || 3 (moribund) || [olr] || Gaua
 * Lakon || 800 || [lkn] || Gaua
 * Mwerlap || 1100 || [mrm] || Merelava
 * }
 * Mwesen || 10 (moribund) || [msn] || Vanua Lava
 * Mota || 750 || [mtt] || Mota
 * Nume || 700 || [tgs] || Gaua
 * Dorig || 300 || [wwo] || Gaua
 * Koro || 250 || [krf] || Gaua
 * Olrat || 3 (moribund) || [olr] || Gaua
 * Lakon || 800 || [lkn] || Gaua
 * Mwerlap || 1100 || [mrm] || Merelava
 * }
 * Koro || 250 || [krf] || Gaua
 * Olrat || 3 (moribund) || [olr] || Gaua
 * Lakon || 800 || [lkn] || Gaua
 * Mwerlap || 1100 || [mrm] || Merelava
 * }
 * Mwerlap || 1100 || [mrm] || Merelava
 * }
 * }

Comparative studies
A. François has published several studies comparing various features of the Torres–Banks languages:
 * François (2005): Inventories of vowel systems, and their historical development;
 * François (2007): Systems of noun articles, and their historical development;
 * François (2009): How several languages grammaticalized a set of light personal pronouns into markers for “aorist” aspect;
 * François (2011): How Torres–Banks languages tend to show structural isomorphism, yet lexical diversity;
 * François (2013): Etymological reconstruction of spiritual terms in Torres–Banks languages;
 * François (2015): Systems of geocentric space directionals, and their historical development;
 * François (2016): Historical morphology of personal pronouns.

François (2012) is a sociolinguistic study of the area.

Genealogical structure of the Torres–Banks linkage
The internal structure of the Torres–Banks linkage was assessed based on the Comparative method, and presented in the framework of historical glottometry (François 2014, 2017; Kalyan & François 2018).

Kalyan & François (2018: 81) identified the following best-supported subgroups (in decreasing order of genealogical closeness):
 * Mwotlap – Volow
 * Hiw – Lo-Toga
 * Vurës – Mwesen
 * Lemerig – Vera'a
 * Koro – Olrat – Lakon
 * Dorig – Koro – Olrat – Lakon
 * Olrat – Lakon
 * Lehali – Löyöp – Mwotlap – Volow
 * 15 Banks languages together (Lehali – Löyöp – Mwotlap – Volow – Lemerig – Vera'a – Vurës – Mwesen – Mota – Nume – Dorig – Koro – Olrat – Lakon – Mwerlap)

It is possible that the strict common ancestor of any two members of the Torres–Banks linkage is Proto-Oceanic itself. Evidence of this is found in the preservation of final consonants in Lakon (via a now-lost paragogic vowel), consonants which were lost in most other languages.

Proto-language
The common ancestor of all Torres-Banks languages is called Proto-Torres–Banks, viewed here as a mutually-intelligible chain of dialects within the Torres and Banks islands.