Lower Sepik languages

The Lower Sepik a.k.a. Nor–Pondo languages are a small language family of East Sepik Province in northern Papua New Guinea. They were identified as a family by K Laumann in 1951 under the name Nor–Pondo, and included in Donald Laycock's now-defunct 1973 Sepik–Ramu family.

Classification
The original conception of the family, under the name Nor–Pondo, is as follows:

Malcolm Ross (2005) broke up the Nor branch (and thus renamed the family Lower Sepik) because Murik does not share the characteristic s of the first- and second-person pronouns of Kopar and the Pondo languages, so the latter may form a group: Murik vs Kopar–Pondo. Ross classified Lower Sepik as one branch of a Ramu–Lower Sepik language family.

Foley (2005) tentatively proposes that Chambri and Angoram may be primary branches: Nor, Chambari, Karawari–Yimas, Angoram. Usher, following Foley, keeps Nor together and breaks up Pondo. Neither accept the connection to Ramu.

Foley (2018) and Usher (2020)
Foley (2018) and Usher (2020) agree on the following classification.


 * Lower Sepik family
 * Kopar–Murik (Nor)
 * Murik
 * Kopar
 * Angoram
 * Chambri
 * Karawari–Yimas
 * Karawari
 * Yimas

Foley notes that Angoram appears to be closer to Murik–Kopar, and Chambri to Karawari–Yimas, but Foley (2018: 213) leaves them as separate branches pending further evidence.

Phonology
Except for Yimas-Karawari, Lower Sepik languages typically have the following six-vowel system.




 * i || || u
 * e || ə || o
 * a || ||
 * }
 * a || ||
 * }

Yimas-Karawari has only four vowels.




 * i || u
 * ə ||
 * a ||
 * }
 * a ||
 * }

Pronouns
The pronouns reconstructed for the proto-language are,


 * Proto–Lower Sepik (Ross)


 * {| class=wikitable


 * I || *ama || we two || *ka-i, *ka-pia || we few || *(p)a-ŋk-i-t || we all || *a-i, *a-pia, *i-pi
 * thou || *nɨmi || you two || *ka-u, *ka-pua || you few || *(p)a-ŋk-u-t || you all || *a-u, *a-pu, *i-pu(a)
 * s/he || *mɨn || they two || *mɨnɨmp ? (M), *mpɨ ? (F) || they few || *mɨŋkɨ-t || they all || *mump (M), *pum (F)
 * }
 * s/he || *mɨn || they two || *mɨnɨmp ? (M), *mpɨ ? (F) || they few || *mɨŋkɨ-t || they all || *mump (M), *pum (F)
 * }
 * }


 * Proto-Nor–Pondo (Foley)
 * {| class=wikitable


 * I || *ama || we two || *ka-i, *ka-pa-i || we few || *(pa)ŋk-it || we all || *a-i, *a-pa-i, *(y)i-i, *(y)i-pa-i
 * thou || *mi || you two || *ka-u, *ka-pa-u || you few || *(pa)ŋk-ut || you all || *a-u, *a-pa-u, *(y)i-u, *(y)i-pa-u
 * s/he || *mən || they two || ? || they few || *mɨŋkɨ || they all || *mump ?
 * }
 * s/he || *mən || they two || ? || they few || *mɨŋkɨ || they all || *mump ?
 * }
 * }

Lexicon
A phonological reconstruction of proto-Lower Sepik has been proposed by Foley (2005). Foley's (2005) lexical reconstructions are provided below.


 * Proto-Lower Sepik reconstructions by Foley (2005)


 * {| class="wikitable sortable"

! gloss !! proto-Lower Sepik !! Yimas !! Karawi !! Chambri !! Angrm !! Murik !! Kopar
 * one || *mb(w)ia- || mpa- || mba- || mbwia- || mbia- || abe || mbatep
 * two || *ri-pa- || -rpal || ripay || -ri || -(lɨ)par || kobo || kombari
 * three || *-ram || -ramnaw || -rianmaw || -ram || -elɨm || keroŋgo || keremɨŋ
 * person || *nor || nar-maŋ || yarmasɨnar || noranan || || nor || nor
 * male || *pon || panmal || panmari || || pondo || puin ||
 * woman || *ŋay || ŋay || asay || kaye || nuŋor || ŋai || nana
 * water || *arɨm || arɨm || arɨm || arɨm || alɨm || arɨm || arɨm
 * fire || *awr || awt || awi || ayɨr || aluŋ || awr || awr
 * sun || || tɨmal || sɨmari || sɨnmari || mbwino || akɨn || akɨn
 * moon || *m(w)il ? || mɨla || tuŋkwi || mwɨl || mɨle || karewan || karep
 * star || || awak || suŋkwiɲcirim || suŋgwi || areɲjo || moai || kinaŋ
 * canoe || *kay || kay || kay || ke || ke || gain || kain
 * house || || nam || yam || kurɨr || nam || iran || indan
 * village || *num || num || imuŋka || num || num || nomot || numot
 * breast || *nɨŋgay || nɨŋay || ɲjay || nɨŋke || ŋge || niŋgen || niŋgin
 * tooth || *sisiŋk ? || tɨrɨŋ || sɨsɨŋ || sraŋk || sisiŋ || asarap || asirap
 * blood || *ya- || yat || yay || yari || ayakone || yaran || yuwaran
 * bone || *sariŋamp || tanɨm || tanɨm || anamp || salɨŋ || sariŋib̩ || sarekimp
 * tongue || *minɨŋ || mɨɲɨŋ || mumɨɲɨŋ || tɨbulaniŋk || mɨnɨŋ || menɨŋ || mimiŋ
 * eye || *tambri || tuŋkuruŋ || sampɨs || sɨsiŋk || tambli || nabrin || nambrin
 * nose || || tɨkay || ipun || wambusu || naŋɨm || daur || imbot
 * leg || *namuŋk || pamuŋ || pamuŋ || namaŋk || namuŋ || || namɨŋ
 * hair || || wapwi || wampi || yawi || mbwikmaley || dwar || ruar
 * ear || *kwand- || kwantumuŋ || kwandukas || kukunam || kwandum || karekep || kundot
 * egg || *awŋ || awŋ || yawŋ || awŋk || awŋ || gaug || awŋ
 * leaf || *nɨmpramp || nɨmprɨm || yimprɨm || nɨmpramp || namblum || nabirɨk || nɨmbiraŋ
 * yesterday / tomorrow || *ŋarɨŋ || ŋarɨŋ || arɨŋ || namasɨnɨŋ || nakɨmɨn || ŋarɨŋ || rari
 * oar || *(mɨ)naŋ || muraŋ || mɨnaŋ || naŋk || inap || inaŋ || naŋ
 * betelnut || *poruŋ || patn || payn || muntɨkɨn || parɨŋ || porog || puruŋ
 * lime || *awi(r) || awi || as || ayɨr || awer || air || air
 * pig || *numpran || numpran || impian || numpran || imbar || nɨmbren || nɨmbren
 * crocodile || || manpa || manpo || ayi || walami || oramen || uri
 * snake || *wakɨn || wakɨn || wakɨn || wan || paruŋ || wakɨn || ikun
 * mosquito || *naŋgun || naŋkun || yaŋkun || naŋgun || wawarɨn || nauk || nangɨt
 * ground || *andi || anti || anti || nɨŋkrump || andi || agin || andin
 * feces || *mɨndi || mɨlɨm || mɨnti || muɲjar || mɨndi || mɨndɨn || mɨndɨ
 * hear || *and- || andɨ || andu || andɨ || andɨ || dɨn || nda
 * hit || *di || tupul || kurar || dɨɨ || ti || di || nɨŋ
 * eat || *am(b) || am(b) || am(b) || am(b) || am(b) || mɨn || ma
 * go || *wa || wa || kuria || kal || wa || on || wa
 * come || *ya || ya || kurapia || ya || ya || ya || ya
 * sit || *sa || tay || sa || nda || || sa || nda
 * big || *kupa || kɨpa || kupa || wupa || kupa || apo || kapu
 * cold || *sarV- || tarɨk || sarɨk || saruk || popant || || sarapakin
 * }
 * hair || || wapwi || wampi || yawi || mbwikmaley || dwar || ruar
 * ear || *kwand- || kwantumuŋ || kwandukas || kukunam || kwandum || karekep || kundot
 * egg || *awŋ || awŋ || yawŋ || awŋk || awŋ || gaug || awŋ
 * leaf || *nɨmpramp || nɨmprɨm || yimprɨm || nɨmpramp || namblum || nabirɨk || nɨmbiraŋ
 * yesterday / tomorrow || *ŋarɨŋ || ŋarɨŋ || arɨŋ || namasɨnɨŋ || nakɨmɨn || ŋarɨŋ || rari
 * oar || *(mɨ)naŋ || muraŋ || mɨnaŋ || naŋk || inap || inaŋ || naŋ
 * betelnut || *poruŋ || patn || payn || muntɨkɨn || parɨŋ || porog || puruŋ
 * lime || *awi(r) || awi || as || ayɨr || awer || air || air
 * pig || *numpran || numpran || impian || numpran || imbar || nɨmbren || nɨmbren
 * crocodile || || manpa || manpo || ayi || walami || oramen || uri
 * snake || *wakɨn || wakɨn || wakɨn || wan || paruŋ || wakɨn || ikun
 * mosquito || *naŋgun || naŋkun || yaŋkun || naŋgun || wawarɨn || nauk || nangɨt
 * ground || *andi || anti || anti || nɨŋkrump || andi || agin || andin
 * feces || *mɨndi || mɨlɨm || mɨnti || muɲjar || mɨndi || mɨndɨn || mɨndɨ
 * hear || *and- || andɨ || andu || andɨ || andɨ || dɨn || nda
 * hit || *di || tupul || kurar || dɨɨ || ti || di || nɨŋ
 * eat || *am(b) || am(b) || am(b) || am(b) || am(b) || mɨn || ma
 * go || *wa || wa || kuria || kal || wa || on || wa
 * come || *ya || ya || kurapia || ya || ya || ya || ya
 * sit || *sa || tay || sa || nda || || sa || nda
 * big || *kupa || kɨpa || kupa || wupa || kupa || apo || kapu
 * cold || *sarV- || tarɨk || sarɨk || saruk || popant || || sarapakin
 * }
 * ground || *andi || anti || anti || nɨŋkrump || andi || agin || andin
 * feces || *mɨndi || mɨlɨm || mɨnti || muɲjar || mɨndi || mɨndɨn || mɨndɨ
 * hear || *and- || andɨ || andu || andɨ || andɨ || dɨn || nda
 * hit || *di || tupul || kurar || dɨɨ || ti || di || nɨŋ
 * eat || *am(b) || am(b) || am(b) || am(b) || am(b) || mɨn || ma
 * go || *wa || wa || kuria || kal || wa || on || wa
 * come || *ya || ya || kurapia || ya || ya || ya || ya
 * sit || *sa || tay || sa || nda || || sa || nda
 * big || *kupa || kɨpa || kupa || wupa || kupa || apo || kapu
 * cold || *sarV- || tarɨk || sarɨk || saruk || popant || || sarapakin
 * }
 * go || *wa || wa || kuria || kal || wa || on || wa
 * come || *ya || ya || kurapia || ya || ya || ya || ya
 * sit || *sa || tay || sa || nda || || sa || nda
 * big || *kupa || kɨpa || kupa || wupa || kupa || apo || kapu
 * cold || *sarV- || tarɨk || sarɨk || saruk || popant || || sarapakin
 * }
 * big || *kupa || kɨpa || kupa || wupa || kupa || apo || kapu
 * cold || *sarV- || tarɨk || sarɨk || saruk || popant || || sarapakin
 * }
 * }

For comparisons with the language isolate Tayap, see Tayap language.