Yam languages

The Yam languages, also known as the Morehead River languages, are a family of Papuan languages. They include many of the languages south and west of the Fly River in Papua New Guinea and Indonesian West Papua.

Name
The name Morehead and Upper Maro River, or Morehead–Maro, refers to the area around the Morehead and Maro rivers. Most of the languages are found between these rivers, but the Nambu subgroup are spoken east of the Morehead. Evans (2012) refers to the family instead with the more compact name Yam. This name is motivated by a number of linguistic and cultural items of significance: yam (and cognates) means "custom, tradition"; yəm (and cognates) means "is"; and yam tubers are the local staple and of central cultural importance.

External relationships
Ross (2005) tentatively includes the Yam languages in the proposed Trans-Fly – Bulaka River family. More recently (Evans 2012) has argued that this is not justified and more data has to be gathered. Evans (2018) classifies the Pahoturi River languages as an independent language family.

Yam languages have also been in intensive contact with Marind and Suki speakers, who had historically expanded into Yam-speaking territories via headhunting raids and other expansionary migrations.

Classification
Internal classification of the Yam languages:
 * Yei
 * Tonda languages (a dialect chain)
 * Nambu languages (a dialect chain)

Wichmann (2013) did not find a connection between the branches in his automated comparison.

Languages
Yam languages are spoken by up to 3,000 people on both sides of the border in Papua New Guinea and Indonesia. In Papua New Guinea, Yam languages are spoken in Morehead Rural LLG, Western Province. In Papua, Indonesia, Yam languages are spoken in Merauke Regency.

Yam languages and respective demographic information listed by Evans (2018) are provided below. Geographical coordinates are also provided for some villages.


 * {| class="wikitable sortable"

! Language !! Alternative names !! Subgroup !! Speakers !! Villages or hamlets
 * + List of Yam languages
 * Anta || Tokwe, Upper Morehead, Thamnga || Tonda || 150 || Ufarua (-8.63548°N, 141.63324°W), Forzitho, Thamgakar (-8.62623°N, 141.61106°W) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Komnzo || Kamundjo, Upper Morehead, (Mema, Ranzér), Zókwasi, Farem || Tonda || 200 || Rouku (-8.70179°N, 141.59849°W), Gunana, Morehead (-8.70891°N, 141.63459°W), Firra, Masu, Kanathér in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Wára || Tjokwe, Upper Morehead, Wära, Mät || Tonda || 350 || Yokwa (-8.70047°N, 141.52305°W), (Mäwsa, Kwaikér, Zäzér Ménz) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Wérè || Tokwe, Upper Morehead, Wórä || Tonda || 100 || Tokwa (-8.64329°N, 141.43613°W), Kanfok in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Kémä || Upper Morehead || Tonda || 130 || Wämnefér (-8.74137°N, 141.41583°W) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Kánchá || Kunja, Lower Morehead, Peremka, Kénzä || Tonda || 350* || Bondobol (-8.92952°N, 141.33847°W), Bula (-9.12834°N, 141.34051°W), Jarai (-9.19684°N, 141.58443°W) in southeast Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Ránmo || Tonda, Renmo, Blafe || Tonda || 200* || Yéndorodoro (-8.59196°N, 141.29677°W), Mengete (-8.65704°N, 141.28403°W) in west Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Mblafe || Blafe, Blafe Wonana, Tonda || Tonda || 350* || Weam (-8.61892°N, 141.13473°W), Kandarisa (-8.62142°N, 141.2194°W), Wereaver (-8.5966°N, 141.12357°W) (only recently in Wereaver) in west Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Warta Thuntai || Guntai, Kan || Tonda || 430 || Wando (-8.88589°N, 141.25853°W), Bensbach (-8.8493°N, 141.24986°W), Balamuk, Korombo 1, Korombo 2 (-8.75421°N, 141.26567°W) in mid southwest Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Arammba || None || Tonda || 750 || Fwasam, Gowi, Kiriwa (-8.43751°N, 141.51584°W), Meru (-8.47196°N, 141.46635°W), Sedefi (-8.51459°N, 141.61069°W), Serki (-8.25069°N, 141.76602°W) in north central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Nggarna || Ngar, Kanum, Sota || Tonda || unknown || Vicinity of Sota in west Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Rema || || Tonda || 10? (moribund or extinct) || Wereaver (-8.5966°N, 141.12357°W) in west Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Smerki || Smärki, Kanum, Barkari || Tonda || 150 || Rawu Biru, Tomer, Tomerau, Yakiw in southeast Merauke Regency, Indonesia
 * Tamer || Smerki, Smärki, Kanum || Tonda || 120 || Yanggandur (recently moved there) in southeast Merauke Regency, Indonesia
 * Ngkontar || Ngkontar, Ngkolmpu || Tonda || 100 || Yanggandur in southeast Merauke Regency, Indonesia and into PNG
 * Ngkolmpu || Kiki, Ngkntra Kiki, Kanum, Enkelembu, Kenume, Knwne || Tonda || || east Merauke Regency, Indonesia and into PNG
 * Bedi Ngkolmpu || Kanum, Enkelembu, Kenume, Knwne || Tonda || 5 (moribund or extinct) || Onggaya in south central Merauke Regency, Indonesia
 * Yei || || Yei || 1278 || Po, Torai, Bupul, Tanas, Kwel in east Merauke Regency, Indonesia
 * Nen || || Nambu || 350 || Bimadeben (-8.70179°N, 141.59849°W) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Nama || || Nambu || 1200 || Daraia (-8.61637°N, 141.73358°W), Mata (-8.67455°N, 141.74313°W), Ngaraita (-8.59951°N, 141.71487°W) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Namat || Mibini || Nambu || 170* || Mibini (-8.83885°N, 141.63793°W) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Nambo || Nmbo, Keraki; Namna, Yarne || Nambu || 710 || Nambo variety: Gubam (-8.61943°N, 141.92251°W), Bebdeben (-8.66767°N, 141.92577°W), Arufi (-8.76058°N, 141.91371°W) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG; Namna variety: Pongarki (-8.66429°N, 141.82706°W), Derideri (-8.68684°N, 141.85624°W) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Neme || || Nambu || 200 || Keru (-8.48375°N, 141.78835°W), Mitere in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Dre || Ndre || Nambu || 1 || Ramar in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Namo || Nä || Nambu || 374* || Tais (-9.16753°N, 141.90573°W), Mari (-9.19353°N, 141.70247°W) in south Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Len || Lä || Nambu || 8–10 || Now living in Tais (-9.16753°N, 141.90573°W), original village was Yaoga in south Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * }
 * Tamer || Smerki, Smärki, Kanum || Tonda || 120 || Yanggandur (recently moved there) in southeast Merauke Regency, Indonesia
 * Ngkontar || Ngkontar, Ngkolmpu || Tonda || 100 || Yanggandur in southeast Merauke Regency, Indonesia and into PNG
 * Ngkolmpu || Kiki, Ngkntra Kiki, Kanum, Enkelembu, Kenume, Knwne || Tonda || || east Merauke Regency, Indonesia and into PNG
 * Bedi Ngkolmpu || Kanum, Enkelembu, Kenume, Knwne || Tonda || 5 (moribund or extinct) || Onggaya in south central Merauke Regency, Indonesia
 * Yei || || Yei || 1278 || Po, Torai, Bupul, Tanas, Kwel in east Merauke Regency, Indonesia
 * Nen || || Nambu || 350 || Bimadeben (-8.70179°N, 141.59849°W) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Nama || || Nambu || 1200 || Daraia (-8.61637°N, 141.73358°W), Mata (-8.67455°N, 141.74313°W), Ngaraita (-8.59951°N, 141.71487°W) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Namat || Mibini || Nambu || 170* || Mibini (-8.83885°N, 141.63793°W) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Nambo || Nmbo, Keraki; Namna, Yarne || Nambu || 710 || Nambo variety: Gubam (-8.61943°N, 141.92251°W), Bebdeben (-8.66767°N, 141.92577°W), Arufi (-8.76058°N, 141.91371°W) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG; Namna variety: Pongarki (-8.66429°N, 141.82706°W), Derideri (-8.68684°N, 141.85624°W) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Neme || || Nambu || 200 || Keru (-8.48375°N, 141.78835°W), Mitere in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Dre || Ndre || Nambu || 1 || Ramar in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Namo || Nä || Nambu || 374* || Tais (-9.16753°N, 141.90573°W), Mari (-9.19353°N, 141.70247°W) in south Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Len || Lä || Nambu || 8–10 || Now living in Tais (-9.16753°N, 141.90573°W), original village was Yaoga in south Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * }
 * Namat || Mibini || Nambu || 170* || Mibini (-8.83885°N, 141.63793°W) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Nambo || Nmbo, Keraki; Namna, Yarne || Nambu || 710 || Nambo variety: Gubam (-8.61943°N, 141.92251°W), Bebdeben (-8.66767°N, 141.92577°W), Arufi (-8.76058°N, 141.91371°W) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG; Namna variety: Pongarki (-8.66429°N, 141.82706°W), Derideri (-8.68684°N, 141.85624°W) in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Neme || || Nambu || 200 || Keru (-8.48375°N, 141.78835°W), Mitere in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Dre || Ndre || Nambu || 1 || Ramar in central Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Namo || Nä || Nambu || 374* || Tais (-9.16753°N, 141.90573°W), Mari (-9.19353°N, 141.70247°W) in south Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Len || Lä || Nambu || 8–10 || Now living in Tais (-9.16753°N, 141.90573°W), original village was Yaoga in south Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * }
 * Namo || Nä || Nambu || 374* || Tais (-9.16753°N, 141.90573°W), Mari (-9.19353°N, 141.70247°W) in south Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * Len || Lä || Nambu || 8–10 || Now living in Tais (-9.16753°N, 141.90573°W), original village was Yaoga in south Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * }
 * Len || Lä || Nambu || 8–10 || Now living in Tais (-9.16753°N, 141.90573°W), original village was Yaoga in south Morehead Rural LLG, PNG
 * }

See also: Districts of Papua (Indonesian Wikipedia)

Pronouns
The pronouns Ross (2005) reconstructs for the family are,


 * Proto-Yam (Proto–Morehead – Upper Maro)
 * {| class=wikitable


 * I/we||*ni
 * you||*bu
 * s/he/they||*be
 * }
 * s/he/they||*be
 * }
 * }

Typology
Many Yam languages display vowel harmony, including in Nambu and Tonda languages.

Basic vocabulary
The following basic vocabulary words are from McElhanon & Voorhoeve (1970) and Voorhoeve (1975), as cited in the Trans-New Guinea database:


 * {| class="wikitable sortable"

! gloss !! Kanum !! Yei ! head ! hair ! eye ! tooth ! leg ! louse ! dog ! pig ! bird ! egg ! blood ! bone ! skin ! tree ! man ! sun ! water ! fire ! stone ! name ! eat ! one ! two
 * mel || kilpel
 * mel-kata || peab
 * si || cur
 * tor || ter
 * tegu || cere
 * neːmpin || nim
 * krar || jeu
 * kwer || becek
 * sento || yarmaker
 * bel || mekur
 * mbel || gul
 * mbaːr || gor
 * keikei || paːr
 * per || per
 * ire || el-lu
 * koŋko || mir
 * ataka || kao
 * mens || benj
 * melle || mejer
 * iu || ore
 * anaŋ || cenye
 * namper || nampei
 * yempoka || yetapae
 * }

Fauna names
Below are some turtle names in Yam languages, along with names in Suki:


 * {| class="wikitable sortable"

! Turtle species !! Arammba (Serki) !! Neme (Keru) !! Nama Wat (Daraia) !! Nama Was (Mibini) !! Guntai (Wando) !! Blafe (Wereave) !! Rema (Metafa) !! Suki (Suki, Puka-duka)
 * Elseya branderhorsti || M’bay || Fisor || Fisor Fifi || Rawk Rawk Sutafnarr || Chelba || Nthelon || Forr || Medepka
 * Elseya novaeguineae || || Fisor ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||
 * Emydura subglobosa || Maro Kani || Ngani Fisor || Mani Fisor || Mare Sutafnarr || Mare Chelba || Ntharase; Mari Nthelon || Mari Forr || Tegma; i Anki Kan
 * Chelodina parkeri || Kunkakta || ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || Kunkakta
 * Chelodina rugosa || || Tomba Kofe Fisor || Mbuirr || Weya Sutafnarr || Mbroyer || Fisuwar || Tanfer Marr Forr ||
 * Chelodina novaeguineae || Fasar Kani || || Mboro arr || Mbro arr ||  ||  ||  || Magipinini
 * Carettochelys insculpta || Budu Susa || || Garr ||  ||  ||  ||  || Budu Susa
 * Pelochelys bibroni || Sokrere || ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || Kiye Eise
 * Emydura sp. aff. worrelli || ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || Riskap Kani
 * }
 * Chelodina novaeguineae || Fasar Kani || || Mboro arr || Mbro arr ||  ||  ||  || Magipinini
 * Carettochelys insculpta || Budu Susa || || Garr ||  ||  ||  ||  || Budu Susa
 * Pelochelys bibroni || Sokrere || ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || Kiye Eise
 * Emydura sp. aff. worrelli || ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || Riskap Kani
 * }
 * Pelochelys bibroni || Sokrere || ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || Kiye Eise
 * Emydura sp. aff. worrelli || ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || Riskap Kani
 * }
 * }

All species are consumed by humans except for Chelodina novaeguineae, which is avoided due to its pungent odor. Carettochelys insculpta and Elseya branderhorsti are prized for their large sizes, with E. branderhorsti particularly valued for its plastron.